Long distance exchange in the Central European Neolithic: Hungary to the Baltic.

Czekaj-Zastawny, Agnieszka ; Kabacinski, Jacek ; Terberger, Thomas 等

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Introduction

Our understanding of the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic in the western Baltic has benefitted from recent research on sites in Denmark and northern Germany (e.g. Harff & Luth 2007). In the fifth millennium, coastal and lake shore sites indicate intensive use of marine and freshwater resources. Around 4200-4100 cal BC the first sheep, goat and cattle were introduced in north-western Germany (Hartz et al. 2007) and this was accompanied by new elements of material culture including pottery of the Funnel Beaker culture (hereafter FBC; also known as Trichterbecher or TRB). By c. 3950 cal BC these innovations were introduced to Zealand (Fischer 2002). Towards the east, information on this period of transition has been more limited, but new results from Pomerania are changing this picture. The onset of the Neolithic in the Baltic area was influenced by regular contacts between the late hunter-fishers and the early farming communities in the south (Fischer 1982, 2003; Klassen 2004; Terberger et al. 2009). Such contacts then developed further and copper objects began to reach the western Baltic from south-eastern Europe.

This paper examines the contacts between the southern and northern parts of Europe in the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC, focusing in particular on those between the Tisza valley (modern Hungary and Serbia) and the southern shores of the Baltic (Figure 1). At this time, the communities of the Baltic shore were essentially still culturally Mesolithic but receiving pottery and implements from southern parts that were culturally Neolithic or even Copper Age (Figure 2). Thanks to investigations of a site at Dabki in Pomerania, we can open a new window on the local Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, and we go on to explore the significance of the southern contacts in terms of cultural influence, migration and exchange.

Transition at Dabki 9

Dabki 9 is located on a former lake shore about 1.5km distant from the Baltic Sea coast in Koszalin district in Pomerania, Poland (Figure 3). Excavations in the 1980s encountered a predominantly Mesolithic occupation layer close to the former lake shore which was rich in stone artefacts, organic material and pottery fragments (Ilkiewicz 1989). New excavations in 2004 used a long trench to revisit the stratification and taphonomy, and to obtain a series of AMS dates. The layers close to the former lake shore were disturbed, but further away from the shore it has been possible to establish a reliable sequence (Kabacifiski et al. 2009; Kabacinski & Terberger in press).

Finds at the beginning of the sequence indicate that occupation started around 4900 cal BC, and Final Mesolithic material of the fifth millennium cal BC was present in larger quantities in the layer that built up (Figure 4, layer 3). This was followed by an Early Neolithic FBC phase which probably started ar around 4200-4000 cal BC (Figure 4, layer 5). The most intensive FBC occupation is indicated by FBC pottery fragments from the top of this occupation layer and they are directly dated to c. 3730 cal BC (Poz-18613: 4955 [+ or -] 35 BP) and c. 3710 cal BC (Poz-27412:4920[+ or -]40 BP) (calibration by calpal program: www.calpal.de). One sherd comes from a Funnel Beaker decorated with small knobs under the rim on the inner side of the vessel and is comparable to early FBC material from Lacko, voiv. Bydgoszcz and Flintbek in Schleswig-Holstein (Klassen 2004:159,333).

Numerous fish remains mostly from pike, and bones of beaver, red deer and wild boar demonstrate a hunter-gatherer-fisher economy for the final Mesolithic period. In contrast to earlier ideas (Ilkiewicz 1989; Zvelebil 1998) no undisputable remains of domesticates were present. A possible early cattle bone dates to c. 4240 cal BC but has to be tested by palaeogenetic analyses (Bollongino et al. 2005; Kabacinski et al. 2009). More than 20 T-shaped antler axes were found. Local pottery, in the form of vessels with pointed bottoms and bowls (lamps), emerges around 4700 cal BC (Poz-10438:5750[+ or -]40 BP) (Figure 4, layer 3) and vessel types and ornamentation become more varied from c. 4500 cal BC (Kabacinski & Terberger in press). This early pottery reflects relations with the western Ertebolle culture and the eastern Zedmar/Narva culture. A perforated stone axe (Ilkiewicz 1989) suggests that contacts existed with Neolithic communities of the lower Oder region in the late fifth millennium cal BC (Terberger et al. 2009). Some extraneous pottery sherds also indicate increasing contacts with Neolithic communities in the Vistula and Oder region at this time (Kabacinski & Terberger in press).

The results from Dabki 9 indicate on the one hand that the transition to the Early Neolithic on the Pomeranian coast occurred at about the same time as on the western Baltic Sea coast (Hartz et al. 2007; Terberger & Kabacinski 2010) and on the other hand that the introduction of pottery production in the Baltic Sea region owes something to eastern influences (Hallgren 2004; Klassen 2004:111; Kabacinski & Terberger in press).

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Contacts with southern Neolithic communities

Dabki 9 has so far produced eight pottery sherds (one in the 1980s [Ilkiewicz 1989: fig. 8.2]; the others from a limited area close to the former lake shore) that can be recognised from their distinctive decoration as originating in the Bodrogkeresztur culture of the Tisza valley (modern Hungary, Figure 1). Examples of Bodrogkeresztur pottery are illustrated in Figure 5, and of the Dabki 9 sherds in Figures 6-8.

All fragments of Bodrogkeresztur culture pottery from Dabki come from well-fired vessels of high quality. Matt-black smooth walls indicate a high firing temperature of c. 800-1000[degrees]C in a reductive atmosphere (with limited air access, see Gheorghiu 2006, 2007). The fabric was very well prepared from homogenous clay, with a substantial amount of finegrained sand. The resulting vessels are hard and resistant to high temperatures during use. Walls are thin (5-8mm), even, smooth on the surface and formed from very wide flat bands of clay. The fabric is typical for the Bodrogkeresztur culture in its home territory (see Bognar-Kutzian 1963; Patay 1975). It differs considerably from the fabric of the coarser locally made FBC vessels.

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The Dabki 9 assemblage includes sherds from a cup (Figure 6.1) and three milk jugs (Figure 6.2-4). The cup is parallelled in Hungary, appearing in Phase B of the Bodrogkeresztur culture and in the Hunyadi-halom culture: Tiszakeszi-Faykert (Patay 1975: Tafel 12.1), Erd-Erdliget (Patay 1975: Tafel 12.4), Magyarhomorog-Konyadomb (Patay 2008: Abb. 4.2) and Tiszadob-Borziktanya (Patay 1975: Tarel 12.2) (here Figure 5.2-3). The milk jugs, typical for the Bodrogkeresztur culture (Patay 1975, 2008), are known from both funerary and settlement sites, e.g. Tiszapolgar-Basatanya (Bognar-Kutzian 1963), Medzibodrozie (Novotny 1958: tabs. 43.1-2.4) and Tiszakeszi-Faykert (Patay 1975: Tafel 7.8; 1978: Tafeln 1-17) (here Figure 5.4).

All the pottery fragments from Dabki are decorated in two main schemes; the first either engraved (Figure 6.3) or made with Furchenstich technique (Figure 6.4), composed in chequered patterns filling rhomboid fields separated by plain narrow stripes (Figures 6.3-4 & 7.2). In the Bodrogkeresztur culture this is a very common decorative method applied to various forms of vessels (Patay 1975: e.g. Tafeln 7.8, 9.13 & 12.5) found on many sites in Hungary (Patay 1975: Tafeln 12.5 & 10.7; 2002: figs. 2-4), Slovakia (Novotny 1958: tab. 41.1) and Poland (see below).

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The second scheme is represented by narrow stripes of Furchenstich (Figures 6.1-2, 6.4, 7 & 8). The Furchenstich (stitched groove) technique is well known in the Carpathian basin. Examples of this kind of decoration can be found at several Hungarian Bodrogkeresztur sites (Patay 2002: figs. 2.5 & 3.2; 2008: Abb. 1.4). In Poland, apart from the Dabki finds, one Furchenstich fragment is known from Janowek (Wojciechowski 1972: 270).

The Bodrogkeresztur pottery from Dabki can be dated to Bodrogkeresztur B (c. 3850-3700 cal BC) and to the beginning of the Hunyadi-halom culture (c. 3800-3600/3500 cal BC; Raczky 1995; Patay 2005: 131-2; see Figure 2). Ar that time in the Tisza basin, strong stylistic influences from the Transdanubian Bajc-Retz group became visible (3800-3350 cal BC; Stadler 1999). These imports are probably contemporary at Dabki with the independently-dated FBC sherds (see above). However, new AMS-dates for the cemetery of Rakoczifalva-Bagifoldon suggest an earlier start of the Bodrogkeresztur culture (Csanyi et al. 2009) and we do not want to rule out a somewhat earlier dating for the Dabki 9 imports.

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Pottery and copper objects of the Bodrogkeresztur culture in Poland

Elements of Bodrogkeresztur culture, which developed in Alfold, Transylvania, northern Serbia and eastern Slovakia, reached several areas further north in the fourth millennium BC (Figure 1). They reflect the intensive multi-directional contacts of the inhabitants of the Tisza basin at that time. The influence of the Bodrogkeresztur culture in Poland is well documented (Kozlowski 2006) and is visible in the Polgar groups in Lesser Poland, particularly the Wyciaze-Zlotniki group, in the Lengyel culture, such as the Jordanow group in Lower Silesia, the Late Lengyel Ocice group in Upper Silesia, the Brzesc Kujawski group of the Lengyel culture in the Polish Lowlands, and finally in the Lublin-Volhynia culture (Patay 1963; Kozlowski 1968, 1971, 2006; Wojciechowski 1972; Kaczanowska 1986; Kamienska & Kozlowski 1990; Kadrow 1992: ryc. 7; Kadrow & Zakoscielna 2000; Kadrow et al. 2003; Nowak 2009:137).

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Copper objects were also reaching northern European peoples in the early fourth millennium BC. Seven copper axes of the Bodrogkeresztur culture (Patay 1984; Gedl 2004) have so far been discovered in Poland. Four of them (all stray finds) are of the Jaszladany type: from Starczow in Lower Silesia (Wojciechowski 1972), Koniecmosty in Lesser Poland (Kaczanowska 2009), and from Krzeszyce, Antonin and Radojewice in the Lowlands (Gedl 2004; Leczycki 2005) (Figures 1 & 9). To the west, other copper objects of the Bodrogkeresztur culture can be mentioned, among them an axe of Jaszladany type from Steinhagen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Kersten 1958: 28; Klassen 2000:121, 2004:69 & 425). Artefacts of this type appear in Bodrogkeresztur cemeteries in Hungary, e.g. from Grave 18 in Jaszladany and from a few burials in Magyarhomorog-Konyadomb. The axes of the Jaszladany type can be dated to c. 4000-3700 cal BC (Klassen 2000: 120, 2004: 72). From the territory of Kuyavia there are two other Bodrogkeresztur copper axes known (Crestur type from Pakosc and Siria type from the area of the Gopto Lake: Czerniak 1980:89-91 & ryc. 37; Leczycki 2005). An unusual copper axe from Szczecin-Smierdnica was probably not imported from the Bodrogkeresztur culture (Klassen 2000: 143; Gedl 2004: 24). This is corroborated by a copper Knaufhammeraxt from Scania, which was imported from the eastern Alpine Mondsee group (c. 3800-3500 cal BC; Klassen 2000: 146, 2004: 72). A flat copper axe found at Pantelitz close to Stralsund probably indicates the start of local metalworking in the north at that time (Lutz et al. 1997: 47). More intensive use of copper and a deeper impact on society is proposed from c. 3350 cal BC on for Elbe-Saale region (Muller 2001 : 416).

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A sole example of an obsidian arrowhead--a type fashioned by flat retouching, triangular in shape, and frequently found in graves--was found in a grave of the Lublin-Volhynia culture from Zlota near Sandomierz (Kaczanowska 1980).

Discussion

Exchange networks were already operating in the northern Mesolithic (e.g. Fischer 2003) and an increasing number of imported stone axes mark the final Mesolithic phase around 4500-4100 cal BC (Klassen 2004:101; Terberger et al. 2009). The Mesolithic communities in the north were mostly interested in Neolithic perforated amphibolite axes, while pointed butted axes made of exotic western Alpine rock material such as jadeite were reaching southern Scandinavia and the lower Oder region in the late fifth millennium cal BC (Klassen 2004: 83; Hovorka et al. 2008). In the early fourth millennium BC, early Neolithic people in the north participated in increasingly supra-regional exchange networks.

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The first metal objects from the south-east appeared in Neolithic Brzesc Kujawski group burials (Grygie12008). A single axe of Plocnik type from Bulow, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, represents an early massive copper tool in the north that on typological grounds can be linked to the Ertebolle period (Lutz et al. 1997: 45; Klassen 2000: 121,2004: 69). The distribution of the massive copper tools might be interpreted as the result of a 'down-the line-exchange'. Bur the context of the copper objects in the north indicates a prestigious role for the finds.

Purpose of the imports

Until very recently the influence of the Bodrogkeresztur culture was believed to have terminated in the southern part of Poland (cf. Kaczanowska & Kozlowski 2005; Koztowski 2006), as Bodrogkeresztur imports only reached sites as far as Kuyavia (Leczycki 2005). The discoveries from Dabki shift these limits up to the Baltic Sea. While imported copper tools in the north are present as single finds or in hoards (Klassen 2000), the Bodrogkeresztur pottery was connected with activities on a FBC settlement.

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The number of FBC finds so far detected at Dabki 9 does not indicate a very intensive use of the lake shore site. How can we explain the presence of these exotic Bodrogkeresztur pottery vessels? Research on the FBC has a long tradition, so the absence of such imported sherds on most FBC sites is difficult to explain by lack of research. It seems plausible to interpret Dabki 9 as a site of special function and the FBC settlement could be more extended and important than so far revealed by our excavations.

The number of fragments and the limited distribution suggest that complete vessels were arriving at Dabki 9. The pots were of the best quality and probably represented prestigious objects of high social value in the FBC environment. At the same time they might have been containers for special objects or food and it is possible that such vessels were used in ritual activities. The decorated drinking cup (Figure 8) supports this interpretation.

Modes of transport

For the fourth millennium, wheeled vehicles are proven from Hungary and further north (e.g. Bakker et al. 1999; Vosteen 1999; Fansa 2004; Sherratt 2004). A decoration on a Funnel Beaker from Bronocice, southern Poland, proves the use of four-wheeled vehicles in Central Europe in the mid fourth millennium cal BC (Milisauskas & Kruk 1982; Kruk 2008). Two clay models of wheeled wagons from Radosina (Slovakia; Pavuk 1981: 74) and Balatonlelle (western Hungary; Ecsedy 1982) date to about the same period (c. 3650-3350 cal BC; Furholt 2008). But for the moment there is no reliable evidence that wheeled vehicles were available in Central Europe in the early fourth millennium cal BC. The use of water-craft was probably more relevant for trade and long distance travel. In 2002 a dugout canoe was excavated at Stralsund, north-eastern Germany (Kaute et al. 2004). The find is dated to c. 3850 cal BC (Lubke 2004) and demonstrates the use of 12m-long canoes in the early FBC. The trading route from the Bodrogkeresztur homeland probably followed the major river systems to the Baltic Sea.

Goods for exchange

The nature of (Neolithic) trade is the subject of a long debate but exchange networks were surely of economic and social relevance. The Bodrogkeresztur pottery might have arrived at Dabki 9 through gift exchange: 'the prestige chain' (Renfrew 1972; Stjernquist 1985). Goods have moved along rivers through small-scale trade until early modern times and the origin of objects is not necessarily remembered (Eggert 1991). But we should not underestimate the role of long distance expeditions by individuals from the north in order to obtain valuable or prestigious objects (Stjernquist 1985; Klassen 2004: 256). Considering that Bodrogkeresztur communities were probably very mobile, it also cannot be completely ruled out that imports at Dabki mark a penetration of Bodrogkeresztur people into the Baltic coastal region.

However there were a number of desirable commodities available in the north--sometimes difficult to trace in the archaeological record--such as furs, forest products and amber (Zvelebil 1998:18). Some natural and worked pieces of amber indicate a small workshop at Dabki 9. Amber is increasingly used in the FBC for personal ornaments and large votive offerings from Jutland indicate the increasing value of the material (Midgley 1992: 290). Amber beads are sometimes present in FBC graves of Little Poland (Cmielow: Wislanski 1979: 244) and south-eastern Poland (e.g. Las Stocki and Gutanow: Gajewski 1949: 74; Klementowice: Uzarowiczowa 1968: 297). A large amber deposition (400-500kg) was detected close to a FBC site near Wroclaw (Jazdzewski 1936: 305), but the Neolithic context of the find might be questioned. Depositions of amber from southern Poland weighing up to 600kg are normally related to the Bronze Age and Iron Age and not to the Neolithic period (Stahl 2006: 13). At that time western Jutland and the Kaliningrad region were the main amber suppliers and not Pomerania. In short, the role of amber in FBC trade should not be overestimated.

The new evidence for long distance trade corresponds to observations further west where stone axes and pottery decoration of the early FBC Volling group in Jutland are interpreted as direct influence from southern Central Europe (Klassen 2000:264 ff.; 2004: 107 & 201). It is a task of future research to characterise the nature of such long distance contacts between south and north some 5800 years ago.

Conclusion

All the imports discussed reflect an increasing influence of southern farmers on late Mesolithic and early FBC groups and such contacts certainly supported the adoption of farming in the coastal regions. There is no indication, however, that the objects were connected to new methods of procuring food. The late hunter-gatherer-fishers were interested in them as prestigious objects. The new Dabki 9 finds considerably extend the variability and character of long distance imports in the period c. 4000 to 3500 cal BC and for the first time they prove the transport of fragile pottery vessels over a distance of some 1000km in the FBC. They lead us to expect an organised transportation system, predominately by water in pursuit of prestige and perhaps reciprocal exchange.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Prof. Pal Raczky for his support in the identification of the Bodrogkeresztur pottery and Dr Lutz Klassen, Dr Dieter Kaufmann & Dr Svend Hansen for helpful information on the subject. We owe J. Ilkiewicz and the excavation team excellent field seasons and we would like to thank the Polish Ministry of Science and Education (grant no. 1 H01H 013 29, 2005-2008) and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grant TE 259/4-1, since 2009) for financial support. Finally we would like to thank our two anonymous referees for their helpful comments and especially Martin Carver for his editing and support.

Received: 24 February 2010: Accepted: 3 July 2010; Revised: 23 July 2010

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Agnieszka Czekaj-Zastawny, (1) Jacek Kabacinski (2) & Thomas Terberger (3)

(1) Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Science, Stawkowska 17, 31-016 Krakow, Poland (Email: aczekajzastawny@gmail.com)

(2) Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Science, Rubiez 46, 61-612 Poznan, Poland (Email: jacek.kabacimki@interia.pl)

(3) University of Greiftwald, Hans-Fallada-Strasse 1, 17489 Greifswald, Germany (Email: terberge@uni-greifswald.de)