The microstratigraphy of middens: capturing daily routine in rubbish at Neolithic Catalhoyuk, Turkey.

Shillito, Lisa-Marie ; Matthews, Wendy ; Almond, Matthew J. 等

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Introduction

Catalhoyuk is a tell site in the Anatolian region of Turkey with an occupation spanning the early Neolithic to Chalcolithic. The site consists of two mounds--the larger, mainly Neolithic east mound, and the smaller Chalcolithic west mound (Figure la). The east mound covers an area of 13.5ha, with the highest point reaching c. 20m. Catalhoyuk is internationally recognised as one of the largest early settled villages in the world with exceptionally well preserved mud-brick architecture, faunal and botanical remains, and elaborate burials, wall paintings and sculptures. As such, it is a key site in understanding the Neolithic, for example the origins of complex settlements, the development of agriculture and domestication, and changing human-environment relationships (Hodder 2006).

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Micromorphology at Catalhoyuk

Micromorphology has become an increasingly important analytical tool in understanding site formation processes and the use of space (Matthews et al. 1997), particularly within settlements, where it can be used to investigate the life histories of buildings at high temporal resolution (Matthews 2005; Shahack-Gross et al. 2005; Karkanas & Efstratiou 2009), and to understand the formation processes of deposits such as middens which are difficult to resolve at the macroscale (Simpson & Barrett 1996; Shillito et al. 2008). Buildings at Catalhoyuk were kept remarkably clean and have little evidence of in situ activity (Hodder & Cessford 2004). Micromorphology has contributed significantly to understanding the use of space by examining microscopic indicators of activity, and has demonstrated, for example, the frequent sweeping of floors and removal of micro-debris, cyclical replastering of walls and floors, and possible floor coverings in Buildings 1 and 5 (Matthews 2005).

Found within and between groups of buildings are extensive midden deposits, which can be up to 5m wide and over lm high. Middens are typically composed of many individual tine layers, which are impossible to distinguish during excavation (Yeomans 2005). Studies of midden faunal assemblages have highlighted the complex histories of discarded materials (Martin & Russel12000). Micromorphological studies of early middens in the South Area, Spaces 181 and 115 (levels VIII and pre-XII, 6790 to pre-7070 cal BC respectively), have demonstrated the potential of the technique for distinguishing between layers and the potential of middens as indicators of activities that are absent in buildings, such as animal penning (Matthews 2005).

This study has also highlighted difficulties with the use of micromorphology on certain deposits due to the emphasis on visible components and the two dimensional nature of the samples (Matthews 2005). For example, decayed organic remains have a similar amorphous appearance to coprolites, and can only be identified further using biomolecular geochemical methods (Bull et al. 2005; Matthews 2005). Phytoliths, an abundant component (Rosen 2005), can also be difficult to identify depending on their orientation (Matthews 2010). Conversely, geochemical and phytolith analyses can provide identifications of these components but are unable to distinguish between different microcontexts, and provide a general overview rather than activity-specific signals (Jenkins 2005).

The integrated microstratigraphic approach

To overcome these limitations, the integration of microscopic and analytical techniques is necessary, which can be called the microstratigraphic approach to characterising deposits (Weiner 2010). Targeted geochemical analyses such as infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDX) for identifying inorganic materials (Berna et al. 2007; Shillito et al. 2009) and, less commonly, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for organic materials have been successfully integrated with micromorphology (Simpson et al. 1998). Integration of phytolith analysis with micromorphology is also increasingly becoming the standard approach (Albert et al. in press). It enables the simultaneous observation of the context and associations of deposits from individual depositional events (Matthews et al. 1997; Matthews 2005), as well as the identification of specific components within deposits that are problematic in thin section. For example, in buildings the integration of high resolution geochernical analysis of individual plaster layers is providing further information on the possible sources for different types of plasters (Matthews et al. 2010), and comparison of phytoliths from extracted samples and in thin section has contributed to understanding taphonomic impacts on conjoined phytolith size (Shillito 2011).

Fine layers in midden deposits ar Catalhoyuk have not previously been examined using this microstratigraphic approach. The present study thus integrates micromorphology with geochemical (FT-IR, SEM-EDX and GC/MS) and phytolith analyses to examine cycles of deposition and activities, such as pyrotechnology, agriculture, diet and resource use. By comparing earlier and later middens ir is possible to examine longer-term variations in formation processes.

Microstratigraphic analysis of middens

Three middens were examined from early to mid level deposits (South and 4040 areas, approximate to Mellaart Level V/VI, 6550-6350 cal BC) as well as the latest levels of the site (TP Area, Level III-0, 6410-6230 cal BC). The South Area midden is located in Space 261, underlying Building 53 and stratigraphically above Building 85 (Brown 2006) (Figure 1b). The 4040 Area midden is located in Space 279, in a large central pit area, created following the abandonment of Building 64, associated with Building 60 (Yeomans 2006) (Figure 1c). The TP Area midden is located below Buildings 33 and 34 (Czerniak & Marciniak 2004) (Figure la).

The excavation areas and sections studied are illustrated in Figure 2. Twenty-one blocks were collected in the field by cutting from the midden face and wrapping securely with tissue and tape. Where possible, continuous sequences of finely stratified layers were sampled, as well as selective sampling that targeted features of interest such as in situ burning layers. The spatial extent and macroscopic features of different layers were observed to enable the microscopic observations to be related back to their macroscopic context.

Intact blocks of undisturbed sediments were firstly 'micro-excavated' in the laboratory, taking care to sample as closely as possible from individual layers. These sub-samples were collected for geochemical and microbotanical analysis, which could be directly linked to observations in thin section. After sub-sampling, blocks were oven dried at 40[degrees]C followed by impregnation with resin under vacuum. The large format of the sections (140 x 70mm) has the advantage of covering long, undisturbed sequences and reduces the number of slides that need to be prepared to obtain an overlapping sequence. Identifications and descriptions were made according to standard references (Bullock et al. 1985; Courty et al. 1989) where appropriate, and through comparison with reference collections.

Phytoliths were extracted following a method based on Rosen (2005). Following thin section observations, selected sub-samples were further characterised using FT-IR (Shillito et al. 2009) to aid interpretation of their composition. Thin section and phytolith observations were carried out using a Leica DMLP polarising light microscope at magnifications from x 40 to x 400, using plane (PPL) and cross polarised light (XPL). Inclusions suspected to be coprolites were analysed by GC/MS to identify species on the basis of faecal sterols and bile acids (Bull et al. 1999). Analysis indicates a wide range of deposit types, or microfacies (examples are presented in Figure 3). A summary of inclusion types observed in middens and their depositional characteristics is presented in Table 1.

Finely stratified ash and phytolith-rich deposits

The midden deposits are dominated by the presence of ash, which occurs both as pure tine layers and associated with fragments of bone, minerals and aggregates. Unit 12504 in the South Area, for example, consists almost entirely of such ash deposits. The variation in the colour from dark grey to almost white is observed in thin section to be a result of the percentage of microcharcoal, also observed in ash-rich deposits at Tel Dor, Israel (Berna et al. 2007). The presence of grass-derived microcharcoal in the dark grey ash indicates low temperature burning (Boardman & Jones 1990), and phytolith analysis of these layers indicates they consist entirely of grasses and reeds. Conversely, the pale grey ash layers in this unit consist largely of fine grained calcite from the burning of wood (Canti 2003) with sand-sized mineral inclusions.

Phytoliths are abundant, well preserved and ubiquitous throughout the middens due to the spreading and mixing of ash (Rosen 2005), of which they are a common component along with microcharcoal. Micro-excavation and extraction of phytoliths has overcome problems with identification recognised by Matthews (2005), and analysis shows a dominance of wild grasses and reeds, whilst comparison with micromorphology shows the diverse range of contexts for the phytoliths. In addition to the different ashes described above, phytoliths also occur as inclusions in animal dung in all three middens (Figure 3n) with types identified including reed and grass leaves and stems, similar to the early midden deposits in Space 181 (Matthews 2005). The integration of micromorphology and extracted phytolith analysis demonstrates the similarity in the appearance of phytoliths from animal dung and non-dung deposits after extraction, and further highlights the importance of integrating the two methods for a reliable interpretation.

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Phytoliths also occur infrequently in thin section as plant temper in building aggregates within pseudomorphic voids, for example in Unit 12504, Space 261 (Figure 3c), and in Spaces 279 and 261 as lamina of highly articulated phytoliths with an orientation parallel to the base of the deposits (Figure 3k & 1). In household contexts, such deposits have been interpreted as decayed organic matting (Matthews 2005; Karkanas & Efstratiou 2009). In middens these are also interpreted as occurring from the in situ decay of whole plant remains, perhaps from the discard of broken basketry or matting, or the raw materials from such activities. In the 4040 Area a laminated phytolith layer with possible penning deposits would support the hypothesis of Matthews (2005) that such areas may have had some sort of covering. In one instance in Space 261 (Unit 12519) a highly articulated layer of phytoliths, less than 2mm thick, was identified as wheat husk remains in the extracted samples, perhaps from crop processing, and is a good example of the high resolution specificity of microstratigraphy, and its ability to detect individual events (Monks 1981).

Organic layers

Embedded throughout the middens are distinct orange inclusions. These are also present in the middens from Space 181, where they are identified in thin section as faecal deposits and amorphous organic deposits of uncertain origin, perhaps decayed food remains (Matthews 2005). Several of the organic inclusions in all three middens in this study have been identified as human coprolites on the basis of organic residue analysis by GC/MS, which has enabled a distinction between human and animal that is not possible through micromorphology alone (Matthews 2005). An example from Space 279, Unit 13103, is shown in Figure 3j, with the corresponding GC trace of faecal sterols in Figure 4. One example of a suspected coprolite (Space 261, Unit 12504) associated with hackberry pericarps, was identified as having a plant rather than faecal origin, which highlights the importance of integrating geochemical methods.

Massive ash and mixed deposits

At the macroscale 'massive' deposits are observed occurring periodically between the fine laminations. These consist of two types of deposits; homogenous mixed redeposited material (Figure 3m) which is particularly common in the TP midden, and in situ burning events characterised by rubified sediments underlying large ash layers (Figure 3e), absent from the TP midden but occurring throughout the sequences in Spaces 279 and 261. Two examples, unit 12524 in the South Area and 13013 in the 4040 Area, are described as repeated lime-burning deposits in the field (Brown 2006; Yeomans 2006), however, their micromorphology is distinct from the lime-burning deposits in Space 181 (Matthews 2005) and other lime-burning experiments (Karkanas 2007) and an alternative activity is likely.

In thin section these large ash layers consist of calcitic plant ash with embedded reed and grass phytoliths associated with occasional animal dung spherulites (Canti 1999), suggesting the presence of dung fuel (Figure 3f). Extracted phytoliths are a mix of grass/reed derived and amorphous forms from wood. At the macroscale, large orange aggregates were seen embedded in the ash layers which are identified in thin section as burnt clay deposits with pseudomorphic voids from the use of plant temper, characteristic of constructional materials (Matthews 2005). Other inclusions embedded in the ash are rounded to sub-rounded reddish clay aggregates, and small shell and bone fragments. The reddish aggregates are not seen in the more frequent finely layered ash from domestic activities and may give a clue to the activity represented here. Such aggregates are present in cave ash deposits in Israel where they are suggested to be burnt soil particles (Berna & Goldberg 2007), and are also present in kiln deposits from the Bronze Age site of Tel Brak, Syria (Matthews 2001). A possible suggestion is that these may be related to ceramic production rather than lime-burning. A bonfire kiln would fit with the quality of ceramics found at Level VI (Acka et al. 2009).

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

Redeposited material is distinguished by the lack of parallel orientation and lamination of deposits, with the inclusions being embedded in a mixed ash and organic rich groundmass (Matthews 2005). Such material is observed in packing between buildings and under floors, similar to observations of 'informal' floors at Neolithic Makri, Greece (Karkanas & Efstratiou 2009), though at Catalhoyuk these are interpreted as packing for the preparation of a plaster surface rather than actual floors (Matthews 2005). These layers in middens are in the region of 50-100mm thick compared to fine layers that may be less than 1mm, and are rare in Spaces 279 and 261. The mixing of material makes interpretation more difficult, and these are considered more a cumulative palimpsest, or aggregation of several different activities into one deposit (Bailey 2007). However, despite being highly mixed, the components are similar to those seen in the fine layers, with inclusions such as coprolites, phytoliths and burnt animal dung.

Discussion

Microstratigraphic analysis indicates that some deposits occur more frequently than others. The most striking pattern in the South and 4040 areas is the high frequency of finely laminated ashes and organic materials compared to larger infrequent, but repeated, in situ burning on the midden surface (Figure 2d & e). The fine layers are interpreted as relating to frequent activities such as hearth rake out and floor sweeping, and the variation in their composition suggests possible variability in fuel use for different activities that require further investigation.

In the TP Area there was no evidence of in situ burning deposits, though it should be noted that the area excavated is much smaller. Conversely, the TP midden appears to have more massive redeposited layers with less frequent finely stratified layers suggesting a difference in the nature of discard in the later levels of the site, with periods of intense reworking and less frequent fine laminations relating to individual activities.

The large volume of ash, comprising much of the total volume of middens, is significant in enabling us to understand the use of plant resources in the past. The charred macrobotanical record consists only of materials preserved by burning at less than 500[degrees]C or for a short duration (Boardman & Jones 1990). Light components such as grasses and chaff are lost most readily from the charred plant record (van der Veen 2007). By incorporating the micromorphological and geochemical study of ash deposits, and of impressions of plants that have since decayed, we get a better overall picture of the nature of plant and fuel resource use (Matthews 2010). The integration with phytolith analysis enables the positive identification of the non-wood component of plant fuel, and a distinction can be made between dung-derived material.

Certain inclusions such as husk phytoliths and hackberry pericarps have previously been suggested as possible seasonal indicators due to their production at specific times of the year (Fairbairn et al. 2005; Rosen 2005). Microstratigraphic observations have demonstrated these occur as distinct clusters within microlayers rather than being ubiquitous, which is encouraging for using these as seasonal markers, at least of processing activities, as storage of plant remains may blur the time signals that they represent (Monks 1981). Other possible indirect seasonal indicators are the in situ burning events--if these relate to activities such as pottery production, perhaps either during the winter, when there was more time for craft activities (Fairbairn et al. 2005), or in the summer when it was drier. However, further analysis of such deposits and a more detailed program of [sup.14]C dating is needed to explore the issue of seasonality and periodicity further (Stein & Deo 2003).

The deposition of waste in specific localities at Catalhoyuk indicates a level of co-operation and the communal nature of some decision making. Whilst midden areas are distinct and different from clean buildings, the close proximity of middens directly adjacent to areas of habitation and the frequent reuse of the deposits in building construction suggest a different attitude to this material in the Neolithic. Particularly the identification of frequent human coprolites, often interpreted as dog on the basis of digested bone inclusions, interspersed with domestic refuse highlights an everyday activity that is not always considered when reconstructing daily routine. The recognition of smaller scale 'daily' discard versus infrequent 'massive' ash deposits also supports a household/community distinction in activities, as previously suggested through spatial analysis of faunal and macrobotanical remains (Bogaard et al. 2009) and examination of discard practices (Martin & Russell 2000).

Although distinguishing the activities represented by in situ burning is still in progress, these deposits indicates that midden surfaces were areas of activity at the site that need to be considered in addition to buildings when trying to understand use of space and periodicity of activities. It is possible that the deliberate use of fire on the midden surface was an attempt by the Neolithic inhabitants to manage the large volume of waste (Ian Hodderpers. comm.) but it is also possible this was an unintentional but beneficial side effect of pyrotechnological activities such as ceramic production occurring on the midden surface.

Conclusions

Micromorphology presents the opportunity to link different components of deposits, and provide a sedimentary context for environmental and artefactual remains, from which one can derive a more robust interpretation of deposits at both a high spatial and temporal scale. Furthermore, the integration of micromorphology with other microscopic and geochemical methods has overcome some of the limitations of using these techniques in isolation. The application of this microstratigraphic approach has helped unravel the complex formation processes of finely stratified middens at Catalhoyuk, and provided evidence for a range of activities which would otherwise be overlooked, including variability of fuel use and the possibility of ceramic production.

In order to fully understand these complex deposits, further integration is also needed of macrobotanical, faunal and artefactual records, and is a priority for future investigation of midden deposits. Although this data, for example ceramics, has been integrated here where possible, faunal and botanical remains are more difficult to integrate, as they represent averaged signals from excavation units which combine several of the fine layers seen in thin section (Matthews 2005). However, it may still be possible to recognise distinct activity assemblages from archaeobotanical remains (Bogaard et al. 2005), and hypotheses arising from these analyses can be assessed through comparison with the sedimentary context in thin section as data becomes available. This study supports the recent suggestion by Goldberg et al. (2009) that archaeology must examine data in the context at which individual activities occur, i.e. the microlayer, if it is to move beyond simply observing major shifts in environment and activities.

Acknowledgements

Thank you to Ian Hodder, Shahina Farid and the Catalhoyuk team without whom this research would have been impossible. Interpretations have benefited greatly from discussions during the study season. The majority of this study was conducted during Lisa-Marie Shillito's PhD, funded jointly by the University of Reading Research Endowment Trust Fund and CEM Analytical Services. GC/MS analysis was funded by the NERC LSMSE Thank you to Alex Brown, Richard Allen and reviewers for providing useful comments on the first draft.

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Lisa-Marie Shillito (1), Wendy Matthews (2), Matthew J. Almond (3) & Ian D. Bull (4)

(1) BioArCh, Departmentof Archaeology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK (Email: lisa-marie.shillito@york.ac.uk)

(2) Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AB, UK

(3) Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AH, UK

(4) Organic Geochemistry Unit, Bristol Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK

Received: 19 October 2010; Revised: 21 January 2011; Accepted: 14 March 2011

Table 1. Summary of microscopic inclusion types observed in midden
deposits and their significance  for interpreting activities (PPL:
plane polarised light; XPL: cross polarised light).

Inclusion          Description                Variations

Bone

Unburnt            PPL: yellow                Size and shape, round-
                     appearance, varies         ness, preservation
                     from microscopic
                     fragments to large
                     inclusions with
                     visible cell structure
                     XPL: first order grey

Burnt              PPL: yellow to orange
                     appearance, varies
                     from microscopic
                     fragments to large
                     inclusions with
                     visible cell structure
                     XPL: bright orange

Plant material

Charred            PPL: black charcoal        Size and shape,
                     fragments, often           roundness,
                     with cell structure        preservation, species
                     intact

Partially          PPL: brown-black
charred

Phytoliths         PPL: siliceous,            Plant part/species,
                     semi-transparent           articulation, multi
                     impressions of plant       or single cells
                     cells XPL: dark,
                     non-birefringent

Pseudomorphic      PPL: colourless, voids     Size, shape
voids                spaces where plant
                     material was once
                     present but has
                     decayed in situ,
                     leaving an
                     impression of its
                     former shape in the
                     surrounding fine
                     material. Often seen
                     as impressions in
                     building materials.

Coprolitic
material/dung

Amorphous,         PPL: yellow/orange,        Size, shape,
non-burnt            smooth, amorphous          spherulites, plant
                     XPL: dark, often           and bone inclusions
                     non-birefringent.

Charred            PPL: dark
<650-750             brown/black or ash
[degrees]C           XPL: spherulites

Discrete           PPL: rounded, orange,
                     bone inclusions

                   XPL: dark

Spherulites        PPL: not visible
                     XPL: distinctive
                     spherical with
                     extinction cross
                     <5-20[micro]m.

Ash

Plant origin       PPL: pale grey             Crystallinity,
                     amorphous crystals         morphology of ash
                   XPL: Small rounded           crystals, temperature
                     calcite crystals           of burning
                     typical of plant ash,
                     birefringent

Dung origin        PPL: pale grey/white
                     large ashy shape
                     XPL: third order
                     blue birefringence,
                     spherulites

Shell

                   PPL: white, linear and     Size, shape
                     curved fragments
                     XPL: high
                     interference colours,
                     striated, often seen
                     as inclusions within
                     aggregates and
                     building material

Aggregates and
building
material

Type 1             Brown, coarse, large       Size, shape, plant and
                     mineral inclusions,        other inclusions
                     with plant voids.

Type 2             Reddish brown, less
                     coarse, smaller
                     mineral inclusions
                     with plant voids.

Type 3             Fine grained, pale
                     silty grey aggregate
                     with plant voids.

Type 4             Unclear origin--no
                     plant voids to
                     suggest
                     anthropogenic

Minerals--major
types present

                   Quartz and calcite as      Size, shape, roundness
                     well as other small
                     fragments of mica
                     and feldspar.
                     Mineral fragments
                     often seen within
                     aggregates, or as a
                     post depositional
                     feature such as
                     gypsum crystals
                     Autigenic phosphate
                     from decaying
                     organic matter

Inclusion          Significance

Bone

Unburnt            Indicates waste from
                     activity involving
                     animal resource.
                     Pre-depositonal
                     burning may
                     indicate
                     cooking/hearth
                     remains.

Burnt              Post-depositional
                     burning may be a
                     result of in situ
                     burning in midden
                     as part of a different
                     activity.

Plant material

Charred            Plant burning activity,
                     fuel, low
                     temperature/short
                     duration.

Partially          Partially charred plant
charred              material rather than
                     fully burnt may
                     indicate accidental
                     burning.

Phytoliths         Plant decay in situ or
                     burning in situ if
                     associated with ash
                     or rubified deposits.
                     Fuel type, resource
                     use, crafts, crop
                     processing.

Pseudomorphic      Plant decay in situ.
voids                Use of different
                     materials as temper.

Coprolitic
material/dung

Amorphous,         Faecal waste
non-burnt            deposition--
                     cleaning, health.

Charred            Dung burning activity.
<650-750             Different fuel types.
[degrees]C

Discrete           Faecal waste
                     deposition--
                     cleaning, health.

Spherulites        Ruminant dung.
                     Spherulites without
                     dung matrix may be
                     a result of fully
                     combusted dung.

Ash

Plant origin       Burning activity. High
                     temperature,
                     extended time of
                     burning.

Dung origin

Shell
                   Possibly indicates
                     origin of aggregates
                     through
                     identification of
                     shell species and
                     comparison with
                     local natural
                     sediments such as
                     lake marl.

Aggregates and
building
material

Type 1             Indicates activity
                     involving aggregates
                     and source of
                     materials used.
                     Small size and
                     rounded shape may
                     indicate sweepings,
                     burnt sweepings
                     from hearth area,
                     unburnt from floors.
                     Very large aggregates
                     may be from
                     demolition activity.

Type 2             Coarser material
                     suggests mud-brick

Type 3             Fine grained material
                     suggests fine plaster

Type 4             Fine grained material
                     suggests fine plaster.

Minerals--major
types present

                   Pre- and post
                     depositional origin
                     of deposits