Roots of diversity in a Linearbandkeramik community: isotope evidence at Aiterhofen (Bavaria, Germany).

Bickle, Penny ; Hofmann, Daniela ; Bentley, R. Alexander 等

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Introduction

The Linearbandkeramik (LBK) culture, c. 5500-4900 cal BC, is the first Neolithic culture over much of Europe (Whittle 2003) (Figure 1). As a result, archaeologists often characterise its material culture in fixed categories, such as 'incoming farmer' or 'acculturated hunter-gatherer' (cf. Robb & Miracle 2007). La Hoguette and Limburg ceramics in the western LBK (see Manen & Mazurie de Keroualin 2003), or evidence for hunting, are frequently seen as indications of surviving 'hunter-gatherers'. Hachem's (2000) detailed study of the animal remains at Cuiry-les-Chaudardes (Aisne Valley) distinguished the households of 'herders' from the shorter houses of 'hunters' (who are attributed a lower status) (Hachem 2000: 311). Hunter-gatherers are identified as variants from an LBK 'norm' (geographical, cultural and economic), an idea which is so academically engrained that any deviation becomes the problem to explain. Complex burial assemblages are similarly reduced to burials of 'farmers' or 'hunters' (Lenneis 2007; Haack 2008), and non-local isotope signatures all too quickly become those of potential 'hunters' (Bickle & Hofmann 2007; Robb & Miracle 2007: 111). This even applies to cemetery evidence, which dates to several generations after the arrival of farmers.

However, this traditional 'forager/farmer' dichotomy neglects the potential variability within both farmer and hunter-gatherer lifestyles. 'Diversity in uniformity' is a more fitting description for LBK communities (Modderman 1988). The LBK exhibits regional trends in house design, ceramics, lithics and burial practices (Modderman 1988; Jeunesse 1997; Coudart 1998). Bioarchaeological remains (flora and fauna) suggest varied agricultural subsistence strategies ar different scales (Hachem 2000; Bogaard 2004; Zvelebil & Pettitt 2008; Knipper 2009; Bogaard et al. 2011). But despite detailed regional syntheses (e.g. Lenneis 1995; Luning 1997; Ilett et al. 1982) and a debated chronology (Gronenborn 2009), monolithic categories such as 'farmer'/'forager' and 'LBK'/'non-LBK' still characterise much interpretation (critiqued by Lukes & Zvelebil 2008; Robb & Miracle 2007). Characterising LBK communities from subsistence strategies and material culture remains challenging.

One way to explore social groups within the LBK directly is through the examination of isotopes in skeletal material--for example, recent strontium isotope work suggests a range of different mobility strategies (Bentley & Knipper 2005; Richards et al. 2008; Nehlich et al. 2009), including transhumance (Bentley et al. 2008), while carbon and nitrogen track differences in plant and animal protein consumption (Price et al. 2001; Bentley et al. 2002, 2008; Bentley & Knipper 2005; Asam et al. 2006; Durrwachter et al. 2006; Richards et al. 2008; Nehlich et al. 2009; Oelze et al. 2011). Here, we reassess the varied diet and mobility of members of an LBK community through ah isotopic analysis at the cemetery of Aiterhofen, Germany. The evidence from Aiterhofen indicates more complex dietary and mobility patterns than that expected from a rigid distinction between 'farmer' and 'forager'. Rather, we argue that LBK burial practices developed from a varied tableau of possible identities, in which subsistence practices played a non-divisive part.

The Aiterhofen cemetery

About 200 LBK sites are known on the Loess areas along the Danube's tributaries in Lower Bavaria, ranging in size from a few houses to large enclosure sites (Pechtl 2009: 188). Aiterhofen in Bavaria, which is in use between 5300 and 4900 cal BC, is an LBK burial ground 5km south of the Danube on the east bank of the Aiterach stream, and may have served one or more nearby settlements (Nieszery 1995: 55-6). When burial began at Aiterhofen, approximately 100 years after the LBK first arrived in Bavaria, regionalisation in ceramic styles, subsistence strategies and house design were increasingly manifest. In Lower Bavaria, as elsewhere, cattle dominate faunal assemblages, but pig and wild animals were a regional preference (Luning 2000). Crop husbandry was small-scale, 'garden' style with long-term investment in particular plots of land (Bogaard 2004: 161). Contrastingly, lithics and Spondylus shell ornaments were exchanged across Europe (Lenneis 2007; Mateiciucova 2008; Ramminger 2009).

LBK burial practices vary (Jeunesse 1997; Boulestin et al. 2009), but cemetery burial dominates: 157 inhumations (the focus of this article), 9 double inhumations and 65 cremations were interred in five loosely defined clusters, making this the largest LBK cemetery in Bavaria (Figure 2; Nieszery 1995: 54, 64). The internal chronology remains problematic and, in the absence of radiocarbon dating, is based on typological and ceramic sequences, which do not provide a firm basis on which to establish a reliable sequence of burial (Nieszery 1995; cf. Farruggia 2002). However, the size and the wealth of grave goods have secured Aiterhofen's importance in debating social structure and identity in the LBK (Nieszery 1995; Jeunesse 1997; Farruggia 2002). Three different osteological analyses have been undertaken for Aiterhofen, with varying results (see Nieszery 1995: 91). In instances where opinions differ, we have followed the majority judgment.

Aiterhofen inhumations (Figure 3) were mostly crouched on their left side, as at most LBK cemeteries, with head to the east. About 65% had grave goods, such as shell, stone and bone ornaments, pottery, red ochre and flint tools; males also received polished adzes (Nieszery 1995). There is debate about the composition of the Aiterhofen community. Nieszery (1995) argued that spatial groupings (Figure 2) represented different settlements, but their varying demographics argue against such a simple correlation (Hofmann 2006). Furthermore, grave goods previously interpreted as denoting 'farmer' or 'hunter' identities cross-cut these spatial groups.

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In the present research, we tested how burial practices seen as abnormal (hence considered 'non-LBK') correlate with the isotope data, with attention also to Nieszery's (1995) spatial groups and the following variables:

* Grave orientatian: about 80% of Aiterhofen burials have the head to the east or southeast; others have the head to the west, south and north.

* Body position: 85% of Aiterhofen inhumations are crouched on the left side; others are right-crouched, supine or prone.

* Grave goods: the grave good categories tested were: unfurnished, polished stone, pottery, Spondylus shell, river shell, antler toggles, bone comb, chipped stone and bone tools.

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Methods

To characterise variation in mobility and geographic origins, strontium isotopes ([sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr) in human tooth enamel were analysed to give a geographic 'signature' from an individual's childhood (e.g. Budd et al. 2004; Bentley 2006; Montgomery et al. 2007). Our strontium isotope sample included all 64 individuals with an available molar (24 adult females, 35 adult males, one male adolescent, four juveniles).

We also measured carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios in bone collagen; both isotopes reflect average protein consumption over approximately the last 10-20 years of an individual's life (e.g. Richards & Hedges 1999; Hedges 2004). Collagen was extracted from up to 1.2g of bone per sample using a standard protocol (O'Connell & Hedges 1999). Results from samples with collagen yields < 1% or C:N ratios >3.5 (Ambrose 1990) were considered unreliable and were excluded from the analysis (10/74 samples). One sample (Ai-55) with a collagen yield of 0.9% was accepted as all of the other collagen quality indicators, and agreement between duplicate runs, were good. Mostly, the same individuals as for the strontium study could be sampled; a total of 60 skeletons returned results on bone collagen for [delta][sup.13]C and [delta][sup.15]N (including 19 female and 22 male adults, one infant, nine adolescents; 23 adults were c. 18-40 and 19 were over 40 years of age: Table 1).

Results

General trends

All measured isotope values are shown in Table 1. The mean [delta][sup.13]C is - 20.4 [+ or -] 0.24[per thousand] and the mean [delta][sup.15]N is 9.8 [+ or -] 0.42[per thousand] (Figure 4). These values are 'typical' of European terrestrial [C.sub.3] prehistoric human values. The standard deviations for [delta] [sup.13]C (0.24[per thousand]) and [delta][sup.15]N (0.42[per thousand]) give less variation than in comparable datasets. For instance, at Herxheim, a late LBK enclosure in the Rhine Valley, Durrwachter et al. (2006: tab. 2) revealed a comparably narrow standard deviation in [delta][sup.13]C values (-20.1 [+ or -] 0.27[per thousand]), but not in [delta][sup.15]N (9.9 [+ or -] 1.02[per thousand]). This suggests that, in line with other LBK data from Bavaria (Asam et al. 2006), Aiterhofen people were unusually homogeneous in their diet, perhaps indicating a regional preference. There were no measurable [delta][sup.13]C or [delta][sup.15]N differences between men and women, or adolescents and adults, or across Nieszery's spatial groups.

Aiterhofen lies on Loess soils, which have a biologically-available strontium isotope range of 0.7086-0.7103 (Bentley & Knipper 2005). The three main geological territories in its immediate vicinity (e.g. Schweissing & Grupe 2003; Janz & Vennemann 2005) are the gneisses and granites of the Bavarian Forest north-east of the Danube ([sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr>0.711), the carbonate sediments of Alpine origin south of the Danube (the Molasse Basin; [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr 0.708-0.710), and variable sedimentary lowlands to the north-west, with biologically-available [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios between 0.7086 and 0.7103 (Bentley & Knipper 2005).

After excluding the two extreme outliers above 0.714, the mean [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratio is 0.70955 [+ or -] 0.00039 (1 s.d.) for 24 females, which is not statisticaily different from the mean for the 35 males of 0.70947 [+ or -] 0.00036 (1 s.d.). These mean values are consistent with those from archaeological pig teeth from the area (0.7097 [+ or -] 0.0008; Bentley & Knipper 2005). Though there are many regional data, we refrain from defining an absolute 'local' [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr range for Aiterhofen because this would not necessarily correlate with variability in human behaviour (Schweissing & Grupe 2003; Bentley et al. 2004; Bentley 2006). Two outliers have [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios of 0.71416 (burial 57, adult male) and 0.71437 (buria192, adult female). These anomalously high ratios could originate from the Bavarian Forest 20-50km to the north-east of Aiterhofen. From the Roman era burial site of Neuburg/Donau, on the Danube to the west, Schweissing and Grupe (2003) also attributed two similarly anomalous human tooth values (0.71308 and 0.71422) to this region. Such values are likely to reflect either a one-off movement into the Aiterhofen area, or a seasonal pattern of mobility extending into these uplands.

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Plotting the isotope ratios ([sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr) against overall concentration of strontium (1/Sr in parts per million [ppm]) (Figure 5) can reveal arrays of data points indicative of distinct human groups, even if those groups overlap in their [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios alone (Montgomery et al. 2007). An array can be interpreted as a mixing line between two sources of strontium (or 'end-members'), which could reflect different geology, diet, or both (Montgomery et al. 2007). Individuals falling along the line share a diet derived from these two sources, incorporated to varying degrees in the [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratio in their tooth enamel. For example, a mixing line could reflect Sr-rich foods (e.g. cultivated plants) from one area, and Sr-poor foods (e.g. meat, dairy) from another (Bentley 2006; Montgomery et al. 2007).

The Aiterhofen sample shows no overall correlation in 1/Sr ppm versus [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr, but the sexes differ. There is no overall patterning amongst the women, but men potentially fall into two arrays (Figures 5a & b; for the upper male array: [r.sup.2] = 0.769, n = 11, p = 0.01; for the lower male array; [r.sup.2] = 0.625, n = 26, p = 0.01). In conjunction with the carbon and nitrogen isotope values, this indicates that men and women had access to similar diets irrespective of origin, but that their mobility patterns differed. Extrapolating from the two potential regression lines present in Figure 5b, we could argue that men were sharing one high Sr ppm food/water source, probably based on local Loess areas, but had two different lower Sr ppm end members, one reflecting a non-local food/water source.

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Orientation

Virtually all [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios outside the majority cluster (i.e. outside the range 0.70930-0.70964), including the two extreme outliers (>0.714), are buried in the majority E-W orientation. Conversely, the three males buried in the relatively unusual N- S orientation (burials 108, 126 and 127) and the female oriented S-N (burial 158) have [sup.87]Sr/[sup.87]Sr ratios within the majority cluster and are therefore probably from the Aiterhofen area. Within the [delta] [sup.13]C and [delta] [sup.15]N values, no patterns based on grave orientation could be distinguished. We cannot therefore accept the hypothesis that body orientation signalled geographic origins at Aiterhofen.

Body position

There are no significant correlations between Sr, C and N isotope results and the different burial positions. Ten of the 13 left-crouched females have nearly the same [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios (Figure 5a), and the three right-crouched burials are closely spaced. Position of the body may, however, be an interesting variable to consider further.

Grave goods

Eight different grave good categories were considered, only one of which correlated significantly with isotope signatures. Nitrogen isotope values differ with the number of polished stone tools present (one-way Anova: [F.sub.3,55] = 9.3, p < 0.01; excluding one infant with a high [delta] [sup.15]N value, probably still being breastfed). Specifically, three older men, each buried with three stone tools, have relatively high [delta] [sup.15]N isotope values (graves 10, 15 and 102; Figure 4). At the Moravian cemetery of Vedrovice, rich grave good assemblages (which included polished tools) correlated with higher nitrogen isotope values (Zvelebil & Pettitt 2008: 209). Given low sample numbers, the authors remain cautious, but suggest that higher-status males, i.e. those with a stone adze or axe, were eating more meat or dairy products (Zvelebil & Pettitt 2008: 209).

Discussion

There is no evidente for hunter-gatherer groups on the Loess persisting into LBK rimes and certainly not past 5300 cal BC, when the cemetery began (Hofmann 2006). We therefore interpret non-local strontium isotope ratios as indicating the presence of individuals who will have moved onto the lowland Loess soils after a childhood spent in areas where there is little to no evidence for the LBK, such as the Bavarian Forest. While we expect some variations in burial rite or grouping over the life of the cemetery, due to the lack of a secure chronology and for the purposes of the isotope analysis the burials are treated as being largely contemporary. With these assumptions, the isotope data demonstrated that the Aiterhofen population had heterogeneous dietary sources, yet a homogeneous or widely shared dietary composition. The main patterns are:

* The majority of the people buried at Aiterhofen sourced their diet from Loess soils, presumably locally. Two extreme outliers (burials 57 and 92) are consistent with a diet derived off the Loess, probably the Bavarian Forest, but otherwise did not stand out in terms of burial practices or carbon and nitrogen values.

* There are no demonstrable age and sex differences in the carbon, nitrogen and strontium isotope ratios, but a significant difference when considering [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratios versus 1/Sr ppm. This suggests that the geographical sources of childhood diet, rather than the relative contributions of different types of protein, varied between the sexes (Figure 5b).

* Burial position showed only weak, non-significant patterns with isotope data (but this warrants further investigation).

* The isotopic dataset does not reflect Nieszery's (1995) five spatial groups, body orientation or most grave goods.

* Higher [delta][sup.15]N values correlated with provision of multiple polished stone tools.

Plotting the [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr isotope ratio against 1/Sr ppm revealed two possible mixing lines for men. These cannot be explained chronologically or spatially, and were probably present throughout the cemetery's life. They may reflect two coexisting subsistence strategies that share one end-member (with lower [sup.87]Sr/[sup.867]Sr ratio and 1/Sr ppm), while the second is particular to each group. We cannot at present define what these end-members are in real terms, but one could suggest that the shared end-member represents local plants (fields) and water sources.

Bogaard et al. (2011) suggest that at Vaihingen in south-west Germany, co- resident groups consistently exploited certain fields over generations. This could explain the shared end-member amongst the Aiterhofen males. The two low strontium concentration end-members are likely to be connected to animal exploitation, with the upper array defined by hunting or herding on different soils (e.g. transhumance), although both groups still shared the community's overall pattern of protein consumption. This suggests that a particular sub-set of the male population were more likely to experience routine mobility in their lives.

In contrast, the females showed a range of [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr and Sr ppm values, without the array patterns of the males. As consistency is absent from the female sample, women potentially originated in several different LBK communities on the Loess, perhaps further supporting the idea of patrilocality for the LBK (Eisenhauer 2003; Bentley 2007). The homogeneity of the carbon and nitrogen data suggests that in spite of these potential 'outside' origins, the same range of food sources was accessible to everyone.

Broadly, the strontium isotope ratios suggest that women moved between communities and some males engaged in regular mobility. However, none of the identified groups coincides with burial practices. Individuals of both sexes found with alleged 'non-LBK' or 'Mesolithic' goods, such as river shells, often had [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr isotope values consistent with Loess and could also receive 'classically' LBK artefacts, such as stone axes or Spondylus shells. The only discernible correlation (higher [delta] [sup.15]N and polished stone tools) seems to reflect individual lifeways within the majority, rather than normative identity categories such as 'forager' or 'farmer'. Similarly, body position and grave orientation do not straightforwardly represent an individual's geographic origin or cultural identity. At Aiterhofen, supposedly 'Mesolithic' objects and tare burial practices coincide with Loess strontium isotope ratios.

Conclusion

Varied mobility patterns seemingly included sex-based differences based around virilocality for women and transhumance/hunting for some men. Such diversity was not divisive. The carbon and nitrogen isotope values suggest similar dietary practices throughout, and this recalls anthropological work on the importance of food sharing in creating a sense of relatedness or kinship in many face-to-face cultures (Carsten 2004). In addition, even within patrilocal societies, shared routines function as alternative mechanisms of community integration cross-cutting origin or households (cf. contributions in Carsten 2000). Despite variation in grave orientation, position of the body and the accompanying grave goods, LBK burial rites were probably based on the local traditions, or a shared vocabulary of burial practices, which bound communities together, not in what defined individuals as different.

The challenge is to characterise the LBK without resorting to a simple material- culture opposition between a 'forager' minority and 'farmer' majority. Variations from LBK burial 'norms' are not straightforward indicators for separate dietary groups or geographical origins. Instead, LBK burial practices varied with age, gender, or local and regional traditions. The isotope results suggest heterogeneous and locally contingent identities, not a fixed set from which a specific package was chosen. This advances a new agenda for LBK studies, in which shared dietary practices can be seen as a strategy of community cohesion. In contrast, variation in burial rites relate to many other strategies of identity formation, as well as ritual, political or emotional factors, which are not easily subsumed in simple ethnic dichotomies.

Acknowledgements

This study was part of the project 'The first farmers in Central Europe-- diversity in LBK lifeways' funded by the AHRC (AH/F018126/1). For a full list of collaborators please see the project website: http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/share/research/projectreports/lifeways/index.html We also thank the Leverhulme Trust for supporting Daniela Hofmann. Philippa Cullen helped to analyse the human bone samples in Oxford. Sampling permission was granted by Michael Schultz and the Staatssammlung fur Anthropologie und Palaoanatomie Munchen, to whom we are very grateful. The photograph of the Aiterhofen burial is reproduced with kind permission of S. Codreanu-Windauer and B. Barrein, Bayerisches Landesamt fur Denkmalpflege. We thank Alex Bayliss, Amy Bogaard, Martin Carver, Dusan Boric Oliver Craig, Janet Montgomery, John E. Robb and two reviewers for their comments.

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Penny Bickle (1), Daniela Hofmann (2), R. Alexander Bentley (3), Robert Hedges (4), Julie Hamilton (4), Fernando Laiginhas (5), Geoff Nowell (5), D. Graham Pearson (5), Gisela Grupe (6) & Alasdair Whittle (1)

(1) Department of Archaeology and Conservation, Cardiff University, Humanities Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff CF10 3EU, UK (Email: bicklepf@cardiffac.uk; whittle@cardiff.ac.uk)

(2) Cardiff University Centre for Lifelong Learning, Senghennydd Road, Cardiff CF 24 4AG, UK (Email: hofmannd@cardiffac.uk)

(3) Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, 43 Woodland Road, Clifton, Bristol BS8 1UU, UK (Email: r.a.bentley@bristol.ac.uk)

(4) Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, Dyson Perrins Building, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK (Email: robert.hedges@rlaha.ox.ac.uk; julie.hamiltan@rlaha.ox.ac.uk)

(5) Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Science Labs, Durham DH1 3LE, UK (Email: fa.laiginhas@durham.ac.uk; g.m.nowdl@durham.ac.uk; d.g.pearson@durham.ac.uk)

(6) Ludwig-Maximilians University, Biozentrum der LMU Biolagie, Grosshaderner Str.2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Munich, Germany (Email: ASM.Grupe@extern.lrz-muenchen.de)

Received: 15 September 2010; Accepted: 17 November 2010; Revised: 4 February 2011

Table 1. Isotope analyses of human tooth enamel and bone collagen
samples from Aiterhofen. Strontium analyses were carried out by
Multi Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
(MC-ICPMS) at the Dept. Earth Sciences, Durham University, in
five separate analytical sessions. The average composition and
reproducibility of the NBS987 Sr isotope reference material run
during each session was: 1. 22/05/09: average NBS987=0.710246
[+ or -] 0.000006 (8.5ppm 2SD, n=9); 2. 26/05/09: average
NBS987=0.710241 [+ or -] 0.000019 (26.8ppm 2SD, n=9); 3.
27/05/09: average NBS987=0.710236 [+ or -] 0.000012 (16.9ppm 2SD,
n=9); 4. 20/10/09: average NBS987=0.710257 [+ or -] 0.000016
(22.5ppm 2SD, n=14); 5. 11/02/10: average NBS987=0.710275 [+ or -]
0.000011 (15.5ppm 2SD, n=15). All sample data are reported
relative to an accepted [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr ratio of 0.71024
for NBS987. 2[delta] uncertainties on the [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr
ratio are in parentheses and correspond to the last digit of the
value. Prefix superscript numbers on each Sr isotope ratio refer
to the analytical session during which the sample was run; each
session's standard values are given as footnotes to the table.
Sr concentrations were based on the sample weight of the measured
[sup.88]Sr beam intensity for each sample and the [sup.88]Sr
beam intensity of NBS987 std. of known concentrations. Since this
is a one-point calibration and the samples have already been
through a column separation procedure, in which column yield may
not be 100%, a 10% uncertainty is considered conservative.
Collagen was extracted using a standard protocol (O'Connell &
Hedges 1999). [delta][sup.13]C and [delta][sup.15]N were measured
relative to the VPDB and AIR standards respectively (Hoefs 1996)
using an automated Carlo Erba carbon and nitrogen elemental
analyser coupled with a continuous flow isotope ratio monitoring
mass spectrometer (PDZ Europa Geo 20/20). Each sample was
measured in at least duplicate runs, using internal secondary
standards, giving an analytical error of [+ or -] 0.2 [per
thousand].

Sample Ai 148 M2 was repeated in two analytical sessions and
agreed to within [+ or -] 0.00002 or 0.0035%, well within the
reproducibility obtained on the NBS987 standard. The measurement
errors on Sr ppm are approximately [+ or -] 10%. The carbon and
nitrogen isotope values for bone collagen are means of at least
2 replicate runs. Analytical error was +0.2%0. G=Nieszery's
groups. O=Burial orientation (head first). P=Body position
(abbreviated as Right/Left Crouched, Supine and Prone).
unk=unknown.

 Sr
Burial Tooth Sex Age (yrs) [sup.87]Sr/[sup.86]Sr PPM

9 Incisor f 20-30 [sup.3] 0.70907 (2) 66
10 M2 m 60+ [sup.5] 0.70942 (1) 43
12 M2 m 30-35 [sup.3] 0.70906 (2) 43
13 -- m? 20-25 -- --
14 M3 f 20-30 [sup.3] 0.70955 (2) 56
15 M2 m 30-40 [sup.1] 0.70933 (1) 49
 M1 [sup.2] 0.70948 (3) 46
18 M2 m 40-45 [sup.2] 0.70959 (2) 55
19(1) -- f 20-30 -- --
21 M2 m? 18-20 [sup.1] 0.70951 (2) 50
22 M2 8 adult [sup.1] 0.70939 (1) 42
23 -- unk 10-12 -- --
24 M2 m adult [sup.1] 0.70962 (1) 44
25 M3 m 45-50 [sup.3] 0.7l024 (2) 71
26(1) -- m unk -- --
28 M2 ru 30-35 [sup.4] 0.70935 (3) 76
29 M1 m 40-45 [sup.2] 0.70917 (2) 51
31 -- m 30-35 -- --
34 M2 m? adult [sup.1] 0.70944 (1) 45
35 M2 m 35-40 [sup.5] 0.70993 (2) 63
36 M2 unk 25-30 [sup.2] 0.71012 (2) 52
39 M1 1? 06-10 [sup.2] 0.70961 (2) 41
41 M2 m? 10-12 [sup.2] 0.70875 (2) 82
42 -- m 60+ -- --
43 -- m adult -- --
47 -- m? 07-13 -- --
48 M1 m 25-30 [sup.5] 0.70951 (1) 36
50 M2 m 60+ [sup.3] 0.70952 (2) 68
55 M2 f 20-30 [sup.3] 0.70951 (2) 38
 M1 [sup.3] 0.70917 (2) 94
56 M2 m 40-45 [sup.1] 0.70939 (1) 51
57 M2 m 30-35 [sup.1] 0.71416 (2) 47
58 M1 unk 03-06 [sup.2] 0.70912 (3) 42
60 M2 f 40-45 [sup.5] 0.70916 (1) 67
61 M3 m 35-40 [sup.1] 0.70960 (1) 70
65 M3 m? 25-30 [sup.2] 0.70959 (2) 40
66 -- unk adult -- -
68 Ml f 40-50 [sup.2] 0.70954 (2) 38
69 M2 f 20-30 [sup.5] 0.70964 (1) 53
74 M2 m 25-35 [sup.3] 0.70905 (2) 113
75 M2 unk 25-35 [sup.5] 0.70967 (2) 79
78 M3 m 25-30 [sup.3] 0.70951 (1) 39
83 M1 1? 04-06 [sup.3] 0.70950 (2) 48
85 M1 m 60+ [sup.2] 0.70950 (2) 40
88 M2 m? 10-12 [sup.3] 0.71007 (2) 40
89 M1 f 25-35 [sup.4] 0.70936 (3) 47
91 M2 f adult [sup.1] 0.70959 (1) 76
92 M2 f 35-40 [sup.5] 0.71437 (1) 98
 M1 [sup.5] 0.70881 (1) 94
93 M3 m 50-55 [sup.1] 0.70911 (1) 90
94 -- m adult -- --
99 M2 f 18-20 [sup.1] 0.70947 (2) 24
100 M2 f 40-50 [sup.1] 0.70949 (1) 37
102 M2 m 60+ [sup.1] 0.70950 (2) 35
106 M1 f 50-55 [sup.3] 0.71025 (2) 91
108 M2 m 50-55 [sup.2] 0.70952 (2) 35
109 M1 f 30-35 tba tba
111 M2 f 25-30 [sup.3] 0.70952 (2) 42
113 M2 m 30-35 [sup.5] 0.70894 (1) 94
115 M3 m 60+ [sup.3] 0.70912 (2) 68
116 M1 f 40-45 [sup.3] 0.70943 (2) 38
118 M1 m 40-60 [sup.5] 0.71051 (1) 59
119 M1 m 30-35 [sup.4] 0.70921 (3) 150
121 M2 m? 30-40 [sup.1] 0.70962 (1) 41
126 M1 m? 20-30 [sup.3] 0.70965 (2) 28
127 M2 m? 20-40 [sup.1] 0.70974(1) 64
130 M2 m 25-35 [sup.3] 0.70897 (2) 61
137 M2 f 30-40 [sup.2] 0.71008 (3) 36
139 M1 I? 15-20 [sup.5] 0.70905 0) 80
 M2 [sup.1] 0.70979 (2) 62
140 M3 f 40 [sup.3] 0.70956 0) 36
141 M3 m 35-40 [sup.2] 0.70948 (2) 41
142 M2 m 40-50 [sup.5] 0.70962 (1) 43
144 M1 f 60+ [sup.5] 0.70917 0) 59
147 M2 unk 10 [sup.1] 0.70917 (1) 58
 [sup.1] 0.70940 (1) 7
148 M2 m? 15 [sup.2] 0.70938 (2) 7
 M2 [sup.5] 0.71084 (1) 48
150 M3 f 60+ [sup.1] 0.71114 (1) 39
158 M1 f 30-40 [sup.3] 0.70962 (2) 41
159 M1 f 60+ [sup.1] 0.70912 (1) 130
160 -- unk adult -- --

 [delta][sup.13]C [delta][sup.15]N %
Burial [per thousand] [per thousand] %C %N collagen

9 -20.5 10.2 41.2 14.6 6.4
10 -20.2 10.7 39.1 14.0 10.3
12 -20.4 10.4 40.5 14.6 8.2
13 -20.4 9.7 31.1 11.2 4.1
14 -20.5 9.9 38.0 13.6 7.7
15 -20.1 10.7 39.2 14.3 9.6
18 -20.1 10.2 35.9 13.0 1.1
19(1) -20.4 9.6 35.9 12.9 2.7
21 -20.1 9.0 38.4 13.8 3.9
22 -20.6 9.5 37.5 13.5 4.4
23 -20.3 10.0 38.0 13.5 6.1
24 -20.6 9.8 37.7 13.6 4.2
25 -20.1 9.6 38.5 14.0 5.9
26(1) -20.2 9.7 33.0 11.8 3.6
28 -20.3 10.0 37.4 13.4 5.3
29 -- -- -- -- --
31 -20.3 9.5 27.9 9.9 1.6
34 -- -- -- -- --
35 -- -- -- -- --
36 -20.3 9.5 33.7 12.0 2.9
39 - - - - -
41 -20.7 9.2 38.7 14.0 5.8
42 -20.0 10.0 35.1 12.5 4.8
43 -20.8 9.1 32.4 11.5 2.9
47 -20.4 9.4 32.9 11.5 4.2
48 -20.7 9.9 32.8 11.2 3.5
50 -- -- -- -- --
55 -20.2 9.9 38.2 13.6 0.9
56 -20.3 10.2 27.5 9.7 1.7
57 -20.2 9.7 26.1 9.4 3.5
58 -20.4 11.1 24.0 8.7 2.4
60 -20.5 9.9 29.6 10.7 3.8
61 -- -- -- -- --
65 -- -- -- -- --
66 -20.8 10.0 35.0 12.8 8.0
68 -20.4 9.9 33.9 12.2 4.8
69 -20.5 9.5 32.6 11.6 2.6
74 -20.6 9.4 28.0 10.1 3.1
75 -- -- -- -- --
78 -20.5 9.8 24.9 9.0 2.5
83 -- -- -- -- --
85 -20.5 10.2 27.4 9.8 3.4
88 -20.7 10.1 24.0 8.7 3.2
89 -20.1 10.1 27.7 10.0 1.8
91 -20.3 9.1 25.1 9.0 1.2
92 -- -- -- -- --
 -- -- -- -- --
93 -- -- -- -- --
94 -20.7 9.6 20.1 7.1 1.1
99 -20.6 9.7 19.8 7.0 1.2
100 -20.8 9.5 27.0 9.5 2.2
102 -20.5 10.5 28.9 10.3 1.5
106 -20.1 9.0 28.9 10.5 2.4
108 -20.3 10.0 34.2 12.4 3.5
109 -20.2 10.1 38.1 13.6 5.6
111 -20.4 9.8 36.8 13.2 5.1
113 - - - - -
115 -20.4 9.8 32.9 11.9 3.7
116 -20.5 9.9 31.8 11.6 3.9
118 -20.7 9.8 36.0 13.1 6.7
119 -21.0 9.5 28.6 10.1 2.2
121 -- -- -- -- --
126 -- -- -- -- --
127 -- -- -- -- --
130 -20.9 9.5 25.4 9.2 1.8
137 -20.5 10.2 40.0 14.7 9.4
139 -20.6 9.4 36.3 13.2 6.3
140 -20.3 9.7 41.4 15.2 8.7
141 -20.6 9.2 29.0 10.5 2.3
142 -20.0 10.3 41.6 15.0 7.7
144 -20.7 9.5 40.1 13.3 3.7
147 -20.6 9.8 35.2 12.6 3.2

148 -20.6 9.4 28.7 10.6 2.3

150 -20.1 9.8 39.7 14.3 4.6
158 -21.0 10.0 18.1 6.3 1.0
159 -- -- -- -- --
160 -20.4 9.4 37.8 13.8 5.7

 C:N
Burial ratio G O P

9 3.29 I E-W LC
10 3.25 I E-W LC
12 3.23 I NE-NW LC
13 3.25 I --
14 3.25 I E-W LC
15 3.20 I --
18 3.21 I ENE-WNW LC
19(1) 3.25 I E-W LC
21 3.25 I -- --
22 3.25 I E-W --
23 3.28 I E-W LC
24 3.23 IIa E-W LC
25 3.21 IIa ENE-WNW LC
26(1) 3.28 IIa E-W --
28 3.27 IIa E-W LC
29 -- IIa ENE-WNW LC
31 3.30 III E-W LC
34 -- III E-W RC
35 -- IIa ENE-WNW LC
36 3.27 IIa ENE-WNW LC
39 - IIIb E-W RC
41 3.22 IIIb ENE-WNW LC
42 3.29 III W-E LC
43 3.28 IIIb ESE-WNW LC
47 3.33 IIIb E-W LC
48 3.41 IIa ENE-WNW LC
50 -- IIIb ENE-WNW CS
55 3.27 IIIb E-W LC
56 3.30 IIIb WNW-ENE LC
57 3.25 IIIb E-W CP
58 3.24 IIIb -- --
60 3.22 IIIb ENE-WNW LC
61 -- IIIb E-W LC
65 -- IIa ENE-WNW LC
66 3.20 IIa N-S CS
68 3.23 IIIb ENE-WNW CS
69 3.28 III ENE-WNW LC
74 3.22 IIb E-W RC
75 -- IId "W-ENE RC
78 3.23 IIa E-W LC
83 -- III E-W LC
85 3.25 III E-W LC
88 3.23 III ENE-WNW LC
89 3.23 IIb E-W LC
91 3.26 III E-W LC
92 -- III E-W LC
 --
93 -- III E-W LC
94 3.30 IIb E-W LC
99 3.32 IV ENE-WNW LC
100 3.33 TIC ENE-WNW LC
102 3.27 TIC ENE-WNW LC
106 3.22 TIC E-W CP
108 3.23 IV NNW-SSE LC
109 3.26 IV NNW-SSE RC
111 3.24 IIIa E-W LC
113 - IV ENE-WNW LC
115 3.23 IV NW-SE RC
116 3.19 Vb ENE-WNW LC
118 3.19 Vb WNW-ENE RC
119 3.29 Vb E-W LC
121 -- V E-W RC
126 -- -- N-S CS
127 -- IId N-S LC
130 3.21 V ENE-WNW LC
137 3.18 Vb ENE-WNW RC
139 3.21 Ia E-W LC
140 3.18 Ia ENE-WNW P
141 3.21 Ia E-W LC
142 3.23 I E-W LC
144 3.51 Ia ENE-WNW CS
147 3.25 IV ENE-WNW LC
148 3.16 IIIa ENE-WNW LC
150 3.25 IIIa ENE-WNW S
158 3.34 Va NNE-SSW CP
159 -- Va NNW-SSE CS
160 3.18 Va E-W LC