The beginning of Iron Age copper production in the southern Levant: new evidence from Khirbat al-Jariya, Faynan, Jordan.
Ben-Yosef, Erez ; Levy, Thomas E. ; Higham, Thomas 等
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Introduction
The resurgence of copper production in the southern Levant, at the
end of the second or start of the first millennium BC, relates to the
widespread civilisation collapse at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c.
1600-1200 BC) when new socio-economic opportunities became available to
societies living on the periphery of the once vibrant cores such as
Mycenae, New Kingdom Egypt, and the Hittite Empire of Anatolia and
Syria. Recent excavations of copper mining and production sites in
Jordan's Faynan district, the largest copper ore deposit in the
southern Levant, shed new light on the nature of the reappearance of
copper production following its demise in the Middle Bronze Age (early
second millennium BC).
The excavations at the copper production sites of Khirbat en-Nahas
and Khirbat al-Jariya in southern Jordan (Biblical Edom) provide the
first detailed record concerning the timing, scale and social control of
copper production at the beginning of the Iron Age when copper was still
the most widespread metal produced in the eastern Mediterranean. These
data relate to questions concerning the link between social and
technological change and recent debates about the relationship between
archaeology and history from a period when these data can first be
linked to the biblical world. In the region of Faynan, these questions
are specifically related to the emergence of the Iron Age polities of
Edom and ancient Israel, since both had a potential interest in one of
the most significant natural resources of the region.
The data presented in this paper are the result of the ongoing
excavations of Iron Age copper production sites in Faynan, utilising
on-site GIS recording (Levy & Smith 2007) coupled with high
precision radiocarbon dating. The excavated materials and the
radiocarbon dataset (from these excavations and other sites) help to
establish a solid contextual and temporal foundation for assessing the
impact of technology on major changes in the socio-political
organisation of this region during the formative period of the early
Iron Age (c. 1200-900 BC).
Iron Age copper production in the southern Levant
The two major copper ore deposits in the southern Levant, Timna
(Rothenberg 1999a & b) and Faynan (Hauptmann 2007), are located
along the margins of the Arabah Valley, separating Israel and Jordan.
They were exploited from the ninth millennium BC to the medieval Islamic
period, with one of the prominent peaks of exploitation occurring during
the Iron Age (Levy et al. 2004b, 2005, 2008; Hauptmann 2007; Mattingly
et al. 2007). At Timna, research showed that the flourishing Late Bronze
Age copper production ceased in the mid twelfth century BC as a result
of the decline in Egyptian economic power during the Twentieth Dynasty
(Rameses V) (Rothenberg 1988: 270-78). Only Stratum I at Timna Site 30
was interpreted as a phase of revived copper production during the
tenth-ninth centuries BC, again under Egyptian influence, but during the
Twenty-second Dynasty (and in particular Sheshonq I, see Rothenberg
1980: 198-201). However, close examination of the radiocarbon dates for
metallurgical sites in the southern Arabah Valley (Table 1) reveals a
more complex situation with evidence of continuous metal production
throughout the Iron Age I-IIA (c. 1200-900 BC), and possible ore
exploitation in the late Iron Age as well.
In Faynan, c. 100km to the north, intensive archaeological work in
recent years has resulted in a marked increase in high precision
radiocarbon measurements for Iron Age copper production sites (Table 1,
Figure 1). Excavations have been made at the Iron Age IIA cemetery of
Wadi Fidan 40, at the Rujm Hamra Ifdan watchtower/enclosure, and copper
processing sites of Khirbat Hamrat Ifdan and the c. 10ha central site of
Khirbat en-Nahas (Levy et al. 2004b, 2008). The site of Khirbat
al-Jariya reported here has provided survey indications of early Iron
Age date (twelfth to eleventh century BC, Hauptmann 2007: 89, 131-2 and
see Table 1 in this paper), and thus was presumed to precede and
complement the archaeological and archaeometallurgical assemblage
obtained from the mostly tenth- to ninth-century BC site of Khirbat
en-Nahas.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Khirbat al-Jariya
Khirbat al-Jariya (KAJ) is located c. 3km north-east of Khirbat
en-Nahas (KEN) (30.707[degrees]N, 35.452[degrees]E, c. 150m asl, Figure
1) in an enclosed valley hidden in the rugged terrain of the eastern
Wadi Arabah. It extends over 7ha on both banks of Wadi al-Jariya and
consists of shallow 'slag mounds', numerous architectural
features, installations and some large structures preserved to a height
of five courses and more (Figures 2 & 3). Deepening of the wadi bed
over the past three millennia has eroded the site centre (c. 3ha) that
was situated on the western bank of the wadi (see Figures 2 & 4).
With the exception of several recent Bedouin graves and some robber
trenches, the site has been relatively undisturbed since its abandonment
in the Iron Age.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
Following fieldwork by Glueck (1935) and the German Mining Museum
(Hauptmann 2007), our team surveyed and mapped the site in 2002 (see
Figure 4) (Levy et al. 2003). The first stratigraphic probe took place
at KAJ between 13-27 November 2006. Area A was selected in the southern
portion of the eastern bank of the Wadi al-Jariya, where a rectangular
structure found in survey (see below) seemed to be associated with one
of the larger 'slag mounds,' resembling the situation in Area
M at KEN (Levy et al. 2008). A grid of four 5 x 5m squares was
established over the 'slag mound' and structure. The building
was exposed to its floor level and the western half of the 'slag
mound' to bedrock (Square F-16) where the accumulation of
archaeological material appeared to be the thickest and six layers
representing at least three occupation phases were recorded (Figure 5,
Table 2).
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
The 'slag mound' sounding: copper production at Khirbat
al-Jariya
Although commonly regarded in the literature as piles of slag,
'slag heaps' or 'mounds' are rarely composed of only
slag material. At KEN, approximately 20-30 per cent (in volume) of the
excavated material of the 'slag mound' in Area M was slag in
various forms and types with the remainder of material consisting of
decomposed furnaces, tuyeres, charcoal, etc. At KAJ the situation is
even more striking as only a very small volume of the excavated material
was slag. The rest of the deposit consisted of fills with considerable
amounts of domestic (not pyrotechnological) debris, including relatively
large quantities of ceramic sherds, ash and other material (see below).
This observation should be taken into consideration when calculating
production intensities by estimation of slag mass from surface
observations, as is commonly done in archaeometallurgical research
around the world (see e.g. Ottaway 2002; Craddock & Lange 2003;
Hauptmann 2007). The Area A 'slag mound' is 2.4m deep, and
includes three distinctive activity horizons (layers A6, A4 and A1a/A2;
Figure 5, Table 2), and two thick fill layers that accumulated as a
result of deliberate disposal of waste in the direction of the wadi
channel, which originally was a few metres to the west.
[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]
Above the red sandstone bedrock (Salib Formation), is a layer that
probably represents the initial occupation phase of the site (A6).
Evidence for copper production-related activities was found here,
including thin, cemented patches of fine crushed slag (L. 123 on Figure
5), small pits dug into the bedrock (related to crushing activity?), ash
pockets and some copper ore fragments (Figure 6c) in a thin and
noncontiguous layer of light brown sediment (L. 124). This supports the
supposition that the raison d'etre of KAJ, like most Iron Age
archaeological sites in the extreme arid environment of Faynan, was the
exploitation of the copper ore deposits. There are no water sources in
the close vicinity of the site (the closest is 'Ain al-Ghuweiba,
located across a steep ridge c. 2.7km to the south-east, Figure 2), but
numerous Iron Age copper mines are located a few hundred metres up the
wadi and its tributaries (Levy et al. 2003: 270) as well as c. 2km to
the south-west, on the other side of Jabal al-Jariya (Jabal al-Jariya
mines, Ben-Yosef et al. 2009a) (Figure 1).
[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]
Above the horizontal basal layer was c. 70cm of
'fill'--mostly domestic debris, composed of light brown
sediment rich in ceramic sherds, bone and ash pockets (A5). The scant
copper production refuse included small fragments of furnace linings,
slag and tuyeres (cf. Figure 6g-h), copper prills (Figure 6i) and some
chunks of copper metal (Figure 6j); nevertheless, the general
characteristic of the fill is of domestic activities, mostly cooking,
eating and storage of water and food represented also by the ceramic
assemblage. The sequence of inclined fine layers was cut abruptly by
levelling of the surface in preparation of a flat area for habitation
and other activities represented in layer A4. The latter is made of thin
horizons of hardened light-brown earth with some charcoal and pottery
sherds, stone installations, patches of stone pavement, and several pits
dug into the fill of A5. Two of the pits were distinctive, narrow (3-5cm
in diameter) 'holes' in the ground; one was 23cm deep with
hardened blackish walls and a red clay plug in its bottom (Figure 6a)
and the other, 0.5m to the north-northwest, was 10cm deep. Coupled with
the stone installations and other finds from layer A4, these may reflect
tent habitation activities. Other finds from layer A4 include a copper
pin (Figure 6k), several grinding stones (see similar examples in Figure
6d-f) and a mollusc fossil probably used as an ornament and similar to a
worked fossil of a sea urchin found in L. 118 above (Figure 6m). It is
interesting to note the abundance of such fossils in the eighth- to
sixth-century BC site of Busayra, approximately 15km to the north-east
on the Edomite plateau (Reese 2002, including comparative discussion of
this phenomenon).
[FIGURE 6 OMITTED]
After the layer A4 occupation ceased, the area became a disposal
zone again, but rich with archaeometallurgical remains (A3), including
pieces of tap and furnace slag (2-10cm in diameter), ample charcoal
remains, tuyere and furnace fragments and chunks of copper metal and ore
in a matrix of ashy sediment and clay indicating decomposed furnace
materials. Evidence of some domestic trash was present as well,
including ceramic sherds and date pits. Layer A3 is truncated by a
horizontal accumulation of copper production debris, representing the
last phase of activity in this part of the site (A1 a-A2). A few metres
to the north of the 'slag mound' a huge sandstone basin (c.
1.5 x 1.2m; see Figure 6b) was found on the surface, exposed by recent
robbery. The basin also relates to the last phase of copper production,
and was probably used to crush ore, flux, charcoal or slag as part of
the copper smelting process. The large size of this ground stone mortar
is similar to ones found in Area F at KEN that date to the tenth century
BC and indicate considerable investment in metallurgical activities at
this time (Levy et al. in press).
The evidence from the 'slag mound' in Area A indicates
small-scale copper production, considerably different from the massive
enterprise at nearby KEN. The mound is relatively shallow (cf. 6.5m of
industrial layers at KEN Area M) and only partially represents copper
production activities. All contexts show a mixture of industrial and
domestic debris and, even in layers directly related to smelting
procedures, the archaeometallurgical artefacts indicate work in small
installations and quantities indicative of limited production. The most
notable technological difference between the sites relates to the size
of the metallurgical installations. Furnace fragments and tapping slag
at KAJ are smaller than in most excavated contexts at KEN, and the
tuyere are shorter and less sophisticated (Levy et al. in press). The
latter was first recognised by Hauptmann (2007: 131-2) who points out
the similarity between the small tuyeres of KAJ and the Late Bronze Age
tuyeres of Timna, suggesting to date the beginning of the smelting
activities at KAJ to the Late Bronze Age.
Structure 276
The top layer A1 a provides the context for Structure 276, although
some of it may be related to a post-structure abandonment phase,
including some ephemeral stone installations close to the surface (L.116
and 117). The layer includes similar materials to layer A3 only with
larger pieces of slag (3-15cm in diameter) and a yellowish horizon of
aeolian sediment that accumulated below the slag fragments covering the
surface. Structure 276 is a rectangular building with outer dimensions
of 6.5 x 3.2m and one doorway in its north-northwest broad wall (Figures
7 & 8). Its walls have only one course of massive local boulders and
roughly cut stones of c. 0.5m in width, built on the truncated pile of
copper production debris (A3). Limited finds from the occupation phase
of the building (A2) came from an elusive floor level and included small
quantities of pottery sherds, some grinding stones and charcoal, in
addition to three interesting features: a line of stones perpendicular
to the south-east wall, partitioning the inner space of the building; a
pavement of large tapping slag (in sizes not found in the 'slag
mound') in the middle of the structure; and a bench-like
installation abutting the interior of the south-west wall made of flat
stones, stuck together with plaster. Some 10-15cm in front of the
bench-like installation, on the floor level of the building, a flat,
square, hewn stone with marks of intensive use was found. The building
had a massive fill of heavy irregular stones (Alb) not indicative of
wall collapse, but rather of an intentional blocking of the
structure's inner space. Approximately 15 grinding stones of
various types and a few pieces of charcoal were found in the fill.
[FIGURE 7 OMITTED]
Structure 276 presents difficulties regarding its interpretation.
It was abandoned (or evacuated) prior to the deliberate filling of its
inner space, resulting in scarcity of finds. It has substantial stone
foundations that did not hold any substantial walls, as well as a few
intriguing installations. Whatever the interpretation of these may be,
it does not seem that the building was an important industrial feature.
Radiocarbon measurements
Nine new carbon samples from well-defined contexts at KAJ are
presented here (Figure 9, Table 2). Modelling of the results using
stratigraphic constraints and Bayesian statistics (Bronk Ramsey 1995;
Buck et al. 1996) indicates that occupation of Area A started between
1092-1017 BC (68.2% probability; 1147-1007 BC, 95.4%) (start of A6) and
ended between 1002-933 (68.2% probability; 1016-904 BC, 95.4%) (end of
A1-2) with an overall occupation span of 20.5-133.5 years (68.20/0
probability; 0-206 years 95.4%).
Geomagnetic archaeointensity investigation: correlating Khirbat
al-Jariya and Khirbat en-Nahas
Absolute determinations of the rapidly changing geomagnetic field
intensity may refine correlation between archaeological horizons by
complementing datasets of material culture and radiocarbon dates from
different locations (e.g. Ben-Yosef et al. 2008b). Following the
procedure of Ben-Yosef et al. (2009b) we obtained two new determinations
from KAJ layers A5 and A3 in addition to the one published by Ben-Yosef
et al. (2008a) for a sample collected from the upper portion of the same
'slag mound' (Table 2).
The archaeointensity data published here support the correlation of
KAJ layers A3-Ala and KEN Stratum M3, probably to its early phase (cf.
Ben-Yosef et al. 2009b: fig. 4), and also for correlating between layers
A5-A6 with KEN Stratum M4. As more absolute archaeointensity
determinations become available, Table 2 will provide a useful reference
for correlating KAJ and other sites in future research. The extremely
rapid changes in field intensity values, or 'spikes', during
the Iron Age suggest that two statistically identical determinations
from different sites indicate contemporaneity (up to a resolution of a
few decades in certain time intervals).
[FIGURE 8 OMITTED]
[FIGURE 9 OMITTED]
New evidence from earliest Khirbat en-Nahas
As part of re-examining the earliest phase of Iron Age copper
production in Faynan, we investigated the bottom (c. 1.2m) strata of the
Area M 'slag mound' at KEN and obtained two new radiocarbon
dates (Table 1). These new dates show that a previously published date
referred to as an 'outlier' in Stratum M3 (the large-scale
tenth-century BC production phase, see Levy et al. 2008: 16462) belongs
with the new dates from the deepest stratigraphic levels of the site,
represented by the production debris of Stratum M4 and the occupation
remains of Stratum M5a-b (starting at the fourteenth century BC).
Stratum M5a-b includes two installations--an 'altar-shaped'
shallow structure situated directly above virgin wadi sands (M5b) and a
rectangular stone-built oven c. 25cm higher (M5a). Although the
installations themselves are probably not related to copper production,
patches of fine crushed slag and charcoals in the sediments that
accumulated at the same level and adjacent to their foundations may
indicate small-scale copper production activities at the very early
stage of occupation at KEN (similar to KAJ A6).
The new results from KEN Stratum M4 strengthen previous evidence
for Iron Age I occupation of the site, which comes from radiocarbon
measurements of Stratum $4, three radiocarbon measurements from KEN Area
A, and two 'slag mounds' sampled by the GMM team (Table 1). In
general, the evidence of the early industrial phase of copper production
at KEN has similar characteristics to the bulk of excavated material
from KAJ: a sequence of fine layers of copper production and domestic
debris.
Discussion
After the collapse of Late Bronze Age state-level societies in the
eastern Mediterranean (e.g. Bachhuber & Roberts 2009), new
socio-economic opportunities arose in lands on their periphery. A window
on this process is provided at KAJ in the marginal Faynan copper ore
district of southern Jordan. The stratified excavations there show that
the site was first occupied around the mid eleventh century BC and
abandoned sometime during the mid to late tenth century BC--earlier than
previously assumed. The sounding suggests that the substantial
architecture visible on the site surface dates to the first half of the
tenth century, and that earlier settlement was probably based on a more
ephemeral use of the site. KAJ was established to exploit the copper
sources in the nearby mines, and metal production developed gradually
and opportunistically from the use of simple technologies for small-
scale production to mass production with sophisticated large-scale
installations. The peak in Iron Age copper production in Faynan,
however, is evident at nearby KEN (e.g. Strata M3-M1, tenth to ninth
centuries BC) without parallel record at KAJ, and demonstrates a
different and more complex social organisation of production extending
into the ninth century BC--but no later.
Radiocarbon dates from three Faynan sites, including KEN, suggest
small-scale copper production activities starting already in the Late
Bronze Age (with dates as early as the fifteenth century BC, Table 1).
At Timna, although there are fewer high precision radiocarbon dates and
sample contexts are not always secure, there is evidence for small-
scale copper production throughout the Iron Age I-IIA sequence, after
the end of Twentieth Dynasty Egyptian hegemony in the region (Table 1).
The resumption of copper production along the length of the Arabah
Valley during the early Iron Age should be seen in light of
'global' economic and political changes, especially the
disruption of commercial connections between Cyprus and the Levant at
the end of the thirteenth century BC (Knauf 1995; Fantalkin &
Finkelstein 2006; Finkelstein & Piasetzky 2008) and the vacuum in
political power in the region after the decline of Egyptian influence
(Levy et al. 2008) that occurred in the Late Bronze Age-Iron Age
transition. Still, the questions of who or what triggered and organised
this enterprise, what was the destination of its products and what
social and political processes brought about the recorded technological
changes within the Iron Age remain open.
There is no evidence in the early stages of Iron Age copper
exploitation (before the end of the tenth century BC) for Egyptian or
any other external control. The ceramic assemblages demonstrate local
vessel types (see Smith & Levy 2008). In our view, the evidence from
Faynan indicates that the resumption of copper production at the very
end of the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age, was opportunistically initiated
by local semi-nomadic tribal societies. These may be the
'Shasu' tribes mentioned in ancient Egyptian documents and
suggested as having been responsible for the tenth-century BC cemetery
at Wadi Fidan 40 in the Faynan district (Levy et al. 2004a; Levy 2009).
Moreover, although the resumption of copper production may be related to
the wider phenomenon of settlement intensification in the Negev
highlands, and in particular to interaction with the so-called 'Tel
Masos chiefdom' (Fantalkin & Finkelstein 2006), we do not
consider both regions to represent the same political or social entity.
Rather, these Negev sites may have played a role in the copper exchange
network emanating from Faynan. Thus, during the Iron Age I, Faynan was
part of the lowlands of biblical 'Edom' and provided the
natural resources that enabled the beginning of processes that led to a
local complex society such as a kingdom (Avishur 2007) or chiefly
confederacy (Levy 2009) described in the biblical accounts.
The geographical extent of Edom is poorly delineated in historical
accounts. Most scholars agree that during the late Iron Age (seventh to
sixth century BC) Edom's borders extended to the west of the Arabah
Valley, and according to Edelman (1995) and Zucconi (2007) the earliest
references to 'Edom' may already encompass this larger area.
Our Iron Age research indicates that its borders oscillated through time
with Faynan as its core during the eleventh to ninth century BC and the
highland plateau site of Busayra, most likely in the eighth to sixth
centuries BC.
KAJ was abandoned in the second half of the tenth century BC,
possibly coinciding with the date of the military campaign of Pharaoh
Sheshonq I (biblical Shishak) in the region (Kitchen 1986: 292-302).
Levy et al. (2008: 16465) ascribe the disruption marked by the M3-M2
boundary at KEN (Area M) to the impact of this campaign on the
organisation of copper production at the site, while Fantalkin and
Finkelstein (2006) attribute the prosperity evident in Tel Masos II and
other changes in the archaeological record of the Beersheva Valley to
this event (contra e.g. Fritz 2002). These researchers view the Egyptian
endeavour as a positive intervention, fostering the copper industry and
trade (and definitely not related to the end of Iron Age IIA in the
region). Although no definitive evidence of deliberate destruction was
found at KAJ or KEN, the abandonment of the first and the reorganisation
of the second (that may have occurred decades after the year of
Sheshonq's campaign itself) may suggest that Egypt attempted to
strangle the incipient industry, which eventually was revived in greater
intensity by the local political powers independent of Egypt (Kitchen
1986) by the early ninth century BC. Nevertheless, we do not think that
a decisive answer regarding the Egyptian role in the copper industry is
currently at hand. Other explanations for the cumulative archaeological
data are possible; for example, the abandonment of KAJ may relate to
exhausting the local mines and focusing on the large copper ore-filled
colluvial fields of Jabal al-Jariya (Ben-Yosef et al. 2009a), closer to
KEN.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr Fawwaz al-Khreisheh, Director General of the Department
of Antiquities of Jordan for his support of the field project; Jason
Steindorf for his work at the paleomagnetic laboratory at Scripps
Institution of Oceanography (UCSD); Dr Uzi Avner for his help in
compiling the radiocarbon dates for Timna; Tali Erickson- Gini for the
permission to publish new radiocarbon dates from Timna; Dr Barbara
Porter and ACOR staff for their help and hospitality while in Jordan;
UCSD staff and students and the Bedouins of Qureiquira for the
fieldwork; the RSCN management for facilitating our work in the Dana
Nature Reserve; and Hagai Ron and Ron Shaar for useful discussions. The
KAJ work was supervised by E.B.-Y, under T.E.L and M.N.
This study was supported by NSF Grants Number 0636051 and 0944137,
research grants from the California Institute of Telecommunication and
Information Technology (Calit2) and Judaic Studies Program at the
University of California, San Diego, and the US--Israel Educational
Foundation Fulbright Grant for PhD students 2006-2007. Finally, we are
grateful to Graeme Barker and Israel Finkelstein for their critique and
comments on this paper.
Received: 23 July 2009; Revised: 11 February 2010; Accepted: 8
March 2010
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contributions to the archaeology of Jordan: 47-58. London: Equinox.
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--(ed.). 1990. The ancient metallurgy of copper (Researches in the
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--1999a. Archaeo-metallurgical researches in the southern Arabah
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Erez Ben-Yosef (1), Thomas E. Levy (1), Thomas Higham (2), Mohammad
Najjar (3) & Lisa Tauxe (4)
(1) Department of Anthropology and Center for Interdisciplinary
Science for Art, Architecture and Archeology, California Institute for
Telecommunication and Information Technology (Calit2), University of
California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
(Email: tlevy@ucsd.edu)
(2) Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for
Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Dyson Perrins
Building, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK
(3) Levantine Archaeology Laboratory, University of California, San
Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
(4) Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla CA 92093, USA
Table 1. Compilation of radiocarbon dates from Late Bronze Age and
Iron Age copper production sites in the southern Levant. All dates are
calibrated using OxCal v.4.1, [c] Ramsey 2009; dates for Timna were
compiled with the help of U. Avner. 1. = locus; elevation is in metres
(m) below surface.
Radiocarbon Cal age-68.2%
Site Lab # age BP prob. (BC)
Faynan copper ore district (northern Wadi Arabah)
Wadi Khalid, HD1492 3197 [+ or -] 39 1500-1432
Mine 42
Wadi Dana, Mine HD10578 2949 [+ or -] 63 1262-1056
13
Khirbat al- HD16351 2915 [+ or -] 30 1192-1048
Jariya (KAJ)
HD10990 2886 [+ or -] 56 1191-979
HD16530 2839 [+ or -] 22 1026-936
See Table 2 in this paper
Khirbat en- OxA17646 2871 [+ or -] 26 1112-1005
Nanas (KEN)
Basal Strata
OxA19040 2942 [+ or -] 27 1254-1117
OxA19041 3026 [+ or -] 27 1373-1260
OxA12169 2899 [+ or -] 27 1126-1026
KEN, fortress, GrA25334 2910 [+ or -] 50 1193-1016
excavations at
Area A
GrA25318 2920 [+ or -] 35 1193-1051
GrA25354 2880 [+ or -] 50 1151-977
KEN 'slag HD14308 2876 [+ or -] 38 1122-1002
mounds'
HD14057 2905 [+ or -] 40 1189-1016
HD14302 2880 [+ or -] 28 1114-1012
HD14336 2895 [+ or -] 35 1127-1014
HD14113 2864 [+ or -] 46 1116-976
KEN 10th-9th See published dates in Engel 1993: 209, Higham et
centuries BC al. 2005, Levy et al. 2005, Hauptmann
2007: 89, Levy et al. 2008 and Levy et al. in
press for new results of areas T, R and F
Rujm Hamra OxA14849 2747 [+ or -] 28 914-842
Ifdan
(watchtower,
minor smelting)
OxA14850 2849 [+ or -] 28 1050-941
OxA14851 2537 [+ or -] 27 791-595
OxA14852 2473 [+ or -] 28 752-524
OxA14853 2495 [+ or -] 28 761-546
Khirbat Faynan HD10581 2726 [+ or -] 102 1000-801
(smelting
activities)
HD10992 2664 [+ or -] 74 910-786
HD10582 2647 [+ or -] 47 889-789
HD10580 2380 [+ or -] 45 516-396
Beta203407 2900 [+ or -] 40 1188-1012
Beta203406 2890 [+ or -] 40 1129-1005
Beta203409 2830 [+ or -] 40 1039-923
Beta203408 2790 [+ or -] 40 1001-901
Beta201410 2790 [+ or -] 40 1001-901
Beta203411 2680 [+ or -] 40 894-803
Beta110840 2630 [+ or -] 50 841-771
Beta110841 2630 [+ or -] 50 841-771
Barqa al- HD13977 2743 [+ or -] 23 908-843
Hetiye
(habitation,
smelting
activity)
Timna Valley and surroundings (southern Wadi Arabah)
Timna 30 Ham216 3340 [+ or -] 60 1689-1531
(smelting site)
BM1598 2785 [+ or -] 50 1003-851
BM1162 2480 [+ or -] 35 756-539
Timna S28 HAM212 2780 [+ or -] 90 1027-827
(Bonn2361)
Timna 2 BM2382 3220 [+ or -] 50 1530-1430
(smelting site)
Pta4121 3090 [+ or -] 60 1430-1294
GrH4493 3000 [+ or -] 50 1370-1131
H3625-2782 2940 [+ or -] 50 1257-1056
Pta4123 2880 [+ or -] 60 1189-943
BM1115 2840 [+ or -] 51 1109-919
RTT5276 3125 [+ or -] 35 1441-1322
RTT5277 2920 [+ or -] 35 1193-1051
RTT5278 2965 [+ or -] 35 1260-1129
RTT5279 2965 [+ or -] 40 1263-1127
N. Amram Pta4127 2920 [+ or -] 60 1212-1021
Timna S27
HAM208 2910 [+ or -] 60 1210-1012
(Bonn2357)
HAM207 2910 [+ or -] 70 1252-1008
(Bonn2356)
Timna S18 HAM210 3050 [+ or -] 70 1411-1215
(Bonn2359)
Timna 200 BM1117 2779 [+ or -] 55 999-847
Timna F2 BM1368 3030 [+ or -] 50 1386-1215
(smelting site)
Timna S19 HAM211 2640 [+ or -] 60 895-774
(Bonn2360)
Site Lab # Context Reference
Faynan copper ore district (northern Wadi Arabah)
Wadi Khalid, HD1492 Backfilling, 17m Hauptmann 2007:
Mine 42 inside entrance 89
Wadi Dana, Mine HD10578 Waste dump in front "
13 of entrance, -0.6m
Khirbat al- HD16351 KJ2-4 "
Jariya (KAJ)
HD10990 Slag heap, wadi "
edge -0.3m
HD16530 Base of slag heap, - "
0.75m
See Table 2 in this paper This study
Khirbat en- OxA17646 Stratum M4: basal Levy et al.
Nanas (KEN) Stratum of 'slag 2008: 16463,
Basal Strata mound', domestic and here indicated
industrial mix as an 'outlier'
OxA19040 Stratum M5a: This study
charcoal (Retama r.)
near installation
1.676
OxA19041 Stratum M5b: This study
charcoal from
sediment above
virgin soil
OxA12169 Stratum S4: basal Levy et al.
Stratum below 2005: 149,
industrial including
structure, domestic important
and industrial mix discussion on
context
KEN, fortress, GrA25334 Stratum A2A, 1.21 Levy et al.
excavations at 2005: 135
Area A
GrA25318 Stratum A3, 1.89 "
GrA25354 Stratum A3, 1.89 "
KEN 'slag HD14308 KN/Eisen/5, -1.15/ Hauptmann 2007:
mounds' -1.25m 89
HD14057 KN-2, -0.85/-0.9m Engel 1993: 209
HD14302 KN/Eisen/2, -0.17/ Hauptmann 2007:
-0.2m 89
HD14336 KN-3, -1.15/-1.3m Engel 1993: 209
HD14113 KN/Eisen/6, -1.65/ Hauptmann 2007:
-1.8m 89
KEN 10th-9th See published dates in Engel 1993: 209, Higham et
centuries BC al. 2005, Levy et al. 2005, Hauptmann 2007: 89,
Levy et al. 2008 and Levy et al. in
press for new results of areas T, R and F
Rujm Hamra OxA14849 Sounding A (hill Levy et al.
Ifdan top), charred date 2008: online
(watchtower, supplementary
minor smelting) material
OxA14850 " "
OxA14851 Sounding B (hill "
bottom), charcoal
(Tamarix)
OxA14852 " "
OxA14853 " "
Khirbat Faynan HD10581 Slag heap 5, 1.3, (Hauptmann
(smelting storage jar 2007:89)
activities)
HD10992 Slag heap 5, -0.3m "
HD10582 Slag heap 5, 1.2, "
furnace
HD10580 Slag heap 5, 1.2, "
furnace
Beta203407 WF455, slag heap 9 Hunt et al.
or 7 (inconsistency 2007: 1334;
in publications) Mattingly et al.
2007: 282
Beta203406 " "
Beta203409 " "
Beta203408 " "
Beta201410 " "
Beta203411 " "
Beta110840 WF5017, Barrage Hunt et al.
section, -2.4m 2007: 1334
(bulk sediment)
Beta110841 WF5017, Barrage "
section, -2.6m
(bulk sediment)
Barqa al- HD13977 House BH2, 1.108 Levy et al.
Hetiye (Ceramic: Iron Age 1999: 305; the
(habitation, I) date obtained by
smelting Fritz was not
activity) available in
time for the
original
publication of
the site (Fritz
1994)
Timna Valley and surroundings (southern Wadi Arabah)
Timna 30 Ham216 (Charcoal?) from Scharpenseel et
(smelting site) Layer 1, slag heap al. 1976: 287
BM1598 Charcoal from Conrad &
metallurgical Rothenberg,
debris, Layer 1980: 201;
III-II Burleigh &
Matthews 1982:
165
BM1162 Charcoal associated
with 'slag cake'
from Layer I
Timna S28 HAM212 Copper mine Scharpenseel et
(Bonn2361) al. 1976: 287
confused in
Conrad &
Rothenberg 1980:
179
Timna 2 BM2382 Slag heap, Layer II Rothenberg 1990:
(smelting site) 71
Pta4121 Area Z, bottom of "
slag heap
GrH4493 Area F, Layer II "
H3625-2782 Furnace IV, Layer I "
Pta4123 Slag heap, Layer II "
BM1115 Area E, Layer I, "
Furnace I
RTT5276 Area C,1.100, B1 T. Erickson-
Gini pers.comm.
2009
RTT5277 Area A, 1.500, B20 "
RTT5278 Area A, 1.501, B23 "
RTT5279 Area A, 1.1001, B27 "
N. Amram Pta4127 Smelting camp Rothenberg 1990:
Timna S27 71
HAM208 Copper mine Scharpenseel et
(Bonn2357) al. 1976: 286-7
confused in
Conrad &
Rothenberg
1980:179
HAM207 " "
(Bonn2356)
Timna S18 HAM210 Copper mine Scharpenseel et
(Bonn2359) al. 1976: 287
confused in
Conrad &
Rothenberg 1980:
179
Timna 200 BM1117 Sanctuary Burleigh &
Hewson, 1979:
349
Timna F2 BM1368 Furnace remains, Burleigh &
(smelting site) charcoal, square Matthews,
3,1.3 1982:165
Timna S19 HAM211 Copper mine Scharpenseel et
(Bonn2360) al. 1976: 287
confused in
Conrad &
Rothenberg 1980:
179
Table 2. KAJ Area A stratigraphy, radiocarbon and archaeointensity
results, cf. Figures 5 & 8 for sample location, and Figure 9 for the
Bayesian model of the results at 68.2 and 95.4% probability. N=number
of specimens per sample; archeointensity sample JS02b is from
Ben-Yosef et al. 2008a.
[sup.14]C results (calibrated with
OxCa14.1 [c] Bronk Ramsey 2009)
Layer Description Lab # Material
Ala Top sediments of the OxA-19033 Charcoal
'slag mound': Tamarix
copper production sp.
debris, aeolian
dust and a few
stone installations
Alb Fill inside structure OxA-19034 Charcoal
276, large boulders Retama ra.
and stones
A2 Occupation phase of OxA-19087 Charcoal
structure 276 and Indet.
probably copper
production debris
at the top of the
'slag mound'
A3 'Fill': accumulation OxA-19035 Charred seed
of copper Phoenix
production debris, dac.
part of the 'slag
mound'
OxA-19130 Charred seed
Phoenix
dac.
A4 Occupation phase: OxA-19036 Charcoal
stone installations, Tamarix
living/activity sp.
floors, tent
dwelling?
A5 'Fill': accumulation of OxA-19037 Charred seed
domestic debris Phoenix
mixed with dac.
industrial remains
A6 Occupation phase OxA-19038 Charcoal
above bedrock: fine Phoenix
crushed slag, ore, dac.
ash pockets and pits
dug into bedrock
OxA-19039 Charcoal
Indet.
[sup.14]C results (calibrated with OxCa14.1
[c] Bronk Ramsey 2009)
Radiocarbon Cal age--68.2%
Layer [[delta].sup.13]C age BP prob. (BC)
[per thousand]
Ala -24.54 2864 [+ or -] 28 1113-997
Alb -11.18 2898 [+ or -] 28 1125-1026
A2 -26.98 2797 [+ or -] 26 995-912
A3 -22.92 2799 [+ or -] 26 994-915
-23.5 2851 [+ or -] 36 1108-934
A4 -22.54 2803 [+ or -] 26 995-919
A5 -24.75 2902 [+ or -] 27 1128-1026
A6 -26.7 2880 [+ or -] 26 1113-1012
-21.53 2884 [+ or -] 27 1114-1016
Archaeointensity results
[B.sub.anc]
Layer Lab # Material N ([mu]T)
Ala Tapping slag 5 76.8 [+ or -] 8.7
JS026 and clay (slag
attached to
furnace
fragment)
Alb
A2
A3
W03268a Ceramic 3 68 [+ or -] 3.1
A4
A5 W03269a Slag 3 63.3 [+ or -] 8.9
A6
Archaeointensity results
vadm
Layer ([zam.sup.2])
Ala 149 [+ or -] 17
Alb
A2
A3 131 [+ or -] 6
A4
A5 122 [+ or -] 17
A6
