The Sarmizegetusa bracelets.

Constantinescu, Bogdan ; Oberlander-Tarnoveanu, Ernest ; Bugoi, Roxana 等

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Discovery and recovery

Between 1999 and 2001 several hoards containing at least 24 gold spiral bracelets were uncovered by organised gangs of illegal treasure hunters in five different spots in the area of Sarmizegetusa Regia, in the Orastie Mountains, Romania (Figure 1). In January 2007, after a long series of investigations by the Romanian authorities in collaboration with Interpol, four spiral-shaped gold bracelets were recovered and returned to Romania from France and the USA. A fifth gold bracelet was recovered thanks to co-operation between the Romanian and French judiciary authorities, while the sixth bracelet was recovered by the Romanian Border Police in June 2007 from a member of a criminal gang. Three more bracelets were repatriated in August 2007 from collectors in Switzerland and the USA, while two more bracelets were brought back from the USA in December 2008. The latest bracelet to be recovered arrived back in Romania in July 2009. Twelve bracelets had thus been recovered by the time this paper was submitted in December 2009 (Figure 2).

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As was later discovered during the criminal investigations and the subsequent judicial inquiry, the gold bracelets were found together with gold staters of pseudo-Lysimachus type, silver Thassos type 2 tetradrachms, Dacian tetradrachms of Radulesti-Hunedoara type and other objects. Sarmizegetusa Regia is the site of the ancient capital of the Dacian kingdom (Daicoviciu & Daicoviciu 1963; Daicoviciu 1972) and is on the UNESCO World Heritage list. All the findspots are today located in dense forest around the sacred precinct (Figure 1). Unfortunately, since the excavations were made by treasure hunters rather than archaeologists, most of the context of these remarkable discoveries has been lost.

Description of the hoards

The inquiry determined that there had been five hoards or deposits, with contents deduced as follows.

Hoard 1 (March 1999) was found in a location called 'Muchea Cetatii' (loosely translated as 'The Fortress Ridge'). It included six gold bracelets (Bracelets 1-4 & 7-8).

Hoard 2, also known as 'Eureka', (spring of 1999) was from the top of the hill behind the sanctuaries. It included one bracelet, buried with 800 staters of Lysimachus type and other silver adornments. The bracelet was sold at auction at Christie's, New York, on 8 December 1999 (lot no. 26).

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Hoard 3, otherwise 'Professor Glodariu's loo', (4) (summer of 1999) included two bracelets (5 & 9), 200 staters of Lysimachus type and 500 tetradrachms (Thassos tetradrachms of the second type and Dacian tetradrachms of Radulesti-Hunedoara type).

Hoard 4 (6 May 2000) included ten gold bracelets in a cist beneath a large rock situated on the steep slope of the Caprareata Hill. From this group the only one to be recovered up to now is Bracelet 6. The context was spectacular: a pit covered with a large slab made out of mica-schist. The bracelets were set in pairs in two distinct superimposed compartments (Ciuta 2008).

Hoard 5 (26-27 May 2001) was from a location called 'The Reservoirs', on the lower slopes of the Caprareata Hill. It included five gold bracelets, from which only Bracelets 10 and 11 have so far been recovered.

The late-arriving Bracelet 12 probably belongs either to hoard 4 or 5.

Description

The 12 bracelets recovered by the Romanian authorities up to December 2009 are shown in Figure 2, and are currently on public display in the Treasury of the National History Museum of Romania in Bucharest. These are the first solid gold bracelets of Dacian craftsmanship to be discovered in Romania, although similar bracelets made from sliver and silver-gilt are known (Medelet 1994; and see below).

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The bracelets are spiroform with beast-head terminals (Figure 3). They have external diameters ranging from 91 to 123mm and weigh between 682.30 and 1196.03g (Table 1). The zoomorphic terminals probably represent snake's heads (Figure 4) emanating from flat rectangular strips with incised decoration (Figure 5) continued as lobed bodies resembling stylised palm leaves or palmettes (Figure 6). In most instances, seven palmettes decorate both ends of the bracelets (in two cases, Bracelets 8 and 11, just six palmettes are present).

Taking into account the scarcity of Dacian gold artefacts discovered so far, their impressive dimensions, the large amount of gold from which the artefacts were crafted and their overall appearance, the Samizegetusa spiral gold bracelets represent one of the most important archaeological finds ever made in Romania.

Authentication

The bracelets have strong stylistic parallels with the 27 Dacian silver or silver-gilt bracelets with better known provenance exhibited (or kept in the repositories) in museums in Bucharest, Budapest and Belgrade (Medelet 1994). These bracelets feature the same spiral form (Figure 7), with snake's head terminals (Figure 8) and lobed strip with palmette ornament (Figure 9).

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Further supporting the authenticity of the gold bracelets was the matt patina observed with reddish and black spots on the surface of the artefacts (Figure 10). These are the result of interactions of the metal surface with the minerals present in the soil--e.g. iron oxides, calcium carbonate and barium compounds, consistent with burial for almost 2000 years.

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Analysis of alloy

The bracelets were submitted to non-invasive chemical examination, both as further proof of antiquity (given the circumstances of their recovery), and as a contribution to understanding the techniques of their original manufacture. ED-XRF (Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence) results obtained for each bracelet, representing the average of the measurements in three areas on each artefact, are given in Table 2 (and see Figure 11). The elemental compositions for all 12 bracelets, featuring relatively large amounts of silver (10% on average) and very small amounts of copper (1% on average), fit the pattern for native gold, which contains up to 40% silver and up to 1% copper (Tylecote 1987; Raub 1995) (Figures 12 & 13). The results show no sign that the gold had been refined, nor of the use of a modern gold alloy.

The comparative composition of native gold was obtained by analysis of specimens from Transylvania held by the Gold Museum in Brad, Romania, originating both from placers (gold sand and nuggets found in riverbeds) and primary sources (gold obtained from mining). The method used was micro Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence (micro SR-XRF), which not only gave the ratios between the three main components of gold alloys (Au-Ag-Cu), but also reported the presence of trace elements. Trace-elements found in native gold are elements of the platinum group (PGE) i.e. Pt, Ir, Os, Ru, Rh, Pd, but also Sn, Sb, Te, Hg, Ti, Zr, As, Bi, Fe and Rare Earth Elements (REE) (Berbeleac 1985; Pernicka 1986; Cojocaru et al. 2000; Cojocaru 2007).

The micro SR-XRF analyses indicated that Transylvanian native gold is characterised by variable and relatively high amounts of silver (from 8% up to 35%, being higher for primary gold), very low amounts of copper (hundreds of mg/kg on average), traces of tin for placer gold and traces of antimony and tellurium for primary (mined) gold. For example, traces of tin can be seen in the Valea Ariesului placer gold SR-XRF spectrum (amounts of the order of hundreds of mg/kg, most probably from the embedded grains of cassiterite (SnO2) (Figure 12). The sample from Rosia Montane primary deposit contains 0.25% tellurium and 500mg/kg antimony, while the Valea Morii primary deposit sample presents large amounts of lead (1%), traces of antimony (250mg/kg) and of tellurium (50mg/kg) (Figure 13). Although tellurium is an element specific to Transylvanian gold (Berbeleac 1985; Hauptmann et al. 1995) and tellurium-containing minerals, such as petzite ([Ag.sub.3]Au[Te.sub.2]) or sylvanite (Au,AgTe4), are quite often found with Transylvanian native gold, to our knowledge this element has only rarely been reported in archaeological gold artefacts (Hauptmann et al. 1995).

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Additional analysis by Pieter Meyers was performed on Bracelet 5 in 2006 using Laser-Ablation Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass-Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The concentrations of the major elements identified were very similar to the ED-XRF results reported in Table 2. He also found significant traces of Sn, Sb, Pd and Pt, indicating gold from placer deposits. His conclusion was that the composition was entirely consistent with the use of natural panned gold that had not been deliberately alloyed or purified.

While the ED-XRF results on the bracelets are consistent with the micro SR-XRF results on Transylvanian native gold samples, in general the bracelets have a higher proportion of copper. This might be related to the presence of accompanying minerals in gold dust and nuggets--e.g. chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) (Hauptmann et al. 1995) or to the processing of the raw material by craftsmen also working with bronze. Given the high copper content of Bracelet 8, for example, the possibility that a tin bronze was used to alloy the gold cannot be excluded (Dube 2006). The varying amounts of tin imply that the bracelets were most likely made from panned and mined gold or mixtures of the two.

The variable compositions reported in Table 2 suggest that different gold ingots were used to manufacture each bracelet. Moreover, the composition varies within each bracelet, as shown by results from different regions of the same armband. This implies that the goldsmiths were not using an advanced technology: most likely, a mixture of gold nuggets and gold dust was melted down without being perfectly homogenised (Raub 1995).

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According to a theory much publicised in the media, the bracelets could have been produced in modern times from metal obtained from melting ancient gold coins (Dacian staters of KOSON type, Lysimachus staters struck by craftsmen in the Greek towns on the western Black Sea coast--Tomis, Callatis, Istros--or late Roman Republican aurei). However, the analyses performed so far on coins of the aforesaid types shows that in all instances the gold fineness of the Greek and Roman coinage was much higher (>95% gold) (Cojocaru et al. 2000).

Method of manufacture

The primary technique for manufacturing all of the bracelets was the cold hammering of a rectangular-shaped gold ingot (Figure 14), while their decoration was made by punching and engraving (Deppert-Lippitz 2008; Oberlander-Tarnoveanu & Constantinescu 2008). This manner of goldworking is very different to the art of goldsmiths in contemporary (fourth-century BC to first-century AD) neighbouring Mediterranean regions. Taking into account their large dimensions, it quickly becomes obvious that there were no constraints in using the raw material, implying that the ancient craftsmen had at their disposal large amounts of gold (Deppert-Lippitz 2008).

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The tools used to produce the artefacts were probably wooden or metallic hammers wrapped in animal hides, wooden anvils and a wooden cylinder to roll the bracelet. To produce the decorations, several punches, engraving chisels and a set of hemispherical or flat-edged puncheons were used. The punches used to produce the palmettes were probably made out of bronze using the lost-wax technique. A large number of slightly different punches were used, even for the same bracelet. Sometimes two (or more) punch strikes were needed to achieve the desired pattern. All the bracelets were manufactured using the same tools and techniques. The ancient goldsmiths mastered quite particular procedures, typical of those used to produce Dacian jewellery from the fourth century BC to the first century AD. This technology seems nowadays lost and replication of such objects would present a serious challenge to a modern artisan.

Purpose and date

The snake motif has more than aesthetic value, being closely related to the religious, social and cultural environment in which the objects were produced (Deppert-Lippitz 2008). The snake's head was an old and venerated totem of the Dacians, even represented on their flag.

It is possible that the gold Dacian bracelets were royal insignia or symbols of the authority of a high priesthood. Some scholars have speculated that they were worn on the upper part of the arms. However, most of the spirals show no traces of wear, being more or less in the same condition as when they left the workshop. Moreover, their large diameters and heavy weight would make wearing them on the upper arm rather uncomfortable. An exception is Bracelet 12, the smallest so far recovered, which also has the highest number of spirals (ten). This object could fit the arm of a gracile woman or teenage boy.

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On the other hand, based on the context of previously discovered Dacian silver hoards, one could suppose that the bracelets formed parts of ritual offerings. In favour of this idea is their discovery near the sacred area of Sarmizegetusa. The manner in which some of the bracelets were placed in a specially constructed pit and their careful arrangement (in pairs, the bracelets of small diameter being inserted in bracelets of larger diameter) (Ciuta 2008) point towards an intentional deposit, rather than a quick concealment in times of danger. Therefore, the votive character of the deposit of such precious objects should not be excluded.

Some chronological evidence of the date of deposition is provided by coins that were found with some of the bracelets. The Lysimachus-type staters belong to the late posthumous series of these issues, struck by the Greek mints from Dobrogea (Tomis, Callatis and Istros) in the late second century BC and the first decades of the first century BC, during the Mithridatic wars. The climax of the West Pontic golden coinage of Lysimachus-type coins was reached during 90-72 BC. The largest number of coins were tetradrachms of the second Thracian type--either genuine issues struck during the Mithridatic wars (around 88-71 BC), or their close imitations minted by various Thracian tribes. The Dacian tetradrachms of Radulesti-Hunedoara type were struck and in circulation for a rather short period of time: the last three decades of the second century and the first decade of the first century BC (c. 130-90 BC) (Preda 1998).

Thus the evidence gathered so far implies that the Dacian gold bracelets were deposited around the sacred area of Sarmizegetusa sometime during the first decades of the first century BC. The same temporal flame (around 100-70 BC) is also supported by the general chronology of similar silver bracelets, which are dated to not later than the first quarter of the first century BC (Medelet 1994).

Conclusion

In spite of the fact that these precious objects were pillaged by criminals from a World Heritage site, we have learnt much about them and their context of deposition, and a certain number have now returned to Romania for safe-keeping and display. The authentication process was both necessary and complex, involving the participation of a multi-disciplinary team of experts. The reward lays not only in the confirmation of the objects as ancient, but in new research.

Visual examination of the artefacts revealed strong stylistic analogies with silver Dacian bracelets of the same kind. The matt patina layer, as well as the reddish, black and green spots resulting from the interaction of the bracelets during burial with the minerals present in soil, were further arguments in favour of their authenticity. The ED-XRF measurements determined compositions that were consistent with those of natural panned gold that had not been deliberately alloyed or purified, mixed with primary mined gold. The analysis of the physical properties of the artefacts, dimensions and weight as well as the marks left by the tools, revealed the technology used by the ancient goldsmiths: cold hammering followed by punching and chiselling.

The general circumstances of the deposition, as so far ascertained, imply that these bracelets were components of votive offerings in association with the sacred centre at Sarmizegetusa Regia. But better understanding can only come from the scientific archaeological investigation of deposits that will hopefully be kept safe for future research.

Received: 21 December 2009; Accepted: 1 March 2010; Revised: 1 April 2010

References

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CIUTA, M. 2008. Considerations regarding an archaeological context discovered at Sarmizegetusa Regia: an archaeological-forensic experiment, in A. Lazar, B. Deppert-Lippitz & P.G. Ferri (ed.) Combating the criminality against the European archaeological heritage. Proceedings of the International Conference on Combating the Criminality against the European Archaeological Heritage, Alba Iulia, 28-31 May 2007: 190-202. Bucharest: Lumina Lex.

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COJOCARU, V., B. CONSTANTINESCU, I. STEFANESCU & C.-M. PETOLESCU. 2000. ED-XRF and PAA analyses of Dacian gold coins of 'koson' type. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 246(1): 185-90.

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OBERLANDER-TAIRNOVEANU, E. & B. CONSTANTINESCU. 2008. Surface and compositional analyses regarding the genuineness of some 2nd-1st century BC Dacian gold bracelets found at Sarmizegetusa Regia, during illegal metal-detectoring works: exploring the limits of the classical and modern type forensic investigations in the case of the archaeological artefacts, in A. Lazar, B. Deppert-Lippitz & P.G. Ferri (ed.) Combating the criminality against the European archaeological heritage. Proceedings of the International Conference on Combating the Criminality against the European Archaeological Heritage, Alba Iulia, 28-31 May 2007: 327-33. Bucharest: Lumina Lex.

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(4) The site of the discovery was indeed a lavatory.

Bogdan (1) *, Ernest Oberlander-Tarnoveanu (2), Roxana Bugoi (1), Viorel Cojocaru (1) & Martin Radtke (3)

(1) Horia Hulubei National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Engineering, Atomistilor 407, Bucharest 077125, Romania

(2) National History Museum of Romania, Calea Victoriei 12, Bucharest 030026, Romania

(3) BAM Federal Institute)cor Materials Research and Testing, Richard- Willstatter-Strasse 11, Berlin D-12489, Germany

* Author for correspondence (Email: bconst@nipne.ro)

Table 1. The physical parameters of the 12 Dacian bracelets
recovered up to December 2009 (the numbering of the bracelets
reflects the order in which they were subsequently recovered).

Bracelet Weight Length External diameter Number of spires
no. (g) (m) of the spires (mm)

1 982.20 2.88 123 7 (5 + 2 halves)
2 1076.72 2.69 112 8 (6 + 2 halves)
3 1115.31 2.82 102 9 (7 + 2 halves)
4 927.98 2.07 101 7 (5 + 2 halves)
5 764.95 2.38 115 7 (5 + 2 halves)
6 1062.55 1.77 123 5 (3 + 2 halves)
7 1196.03 2.51 122 7 (5 + 2 halves)
8 1136.06 2.53 122 7 (5 + 2 halves)
9 682.30 2.12 114 6 (4 + 2 halves)
10 1047.00 2.61 112 8 (6 + 2 halves)
11 825.00 2.22 112 7 (5 + 2 halves)
12 884.37 2.69 91 10 (8 + 2 halves)

Table 2. The elemental composition of the Dacian gold bracelets
obtained through ED-XRF measurements. The relative uncertainty of
the reported results is less than 1 % for gold, increasing up to
10% for silver and copper and being around 20% for the tin
concentrations.

Bracelet Au (wt%) Ag (wt%) Cu (wt%) Sn (mg/kg)
no.
1 89.8 9.5 0.6 200
2 78.2 20.3 1.5 <60
3 82.4 16.2 1.4 360
4 91.5 8.1 0.4 125
5 92.8 6.9 0.3 <MDL *
6 92.0 7.1 0.9 230
7 92.9 6.3 0.7 <MDL *
8 85.0 12.8 2.1 1500
9 87.1 12.2 0.6 <120
10 88.7 10.3 0.9 425
11 86.1 12.6 0.7 400
12 83.5 14.3 1.0 500

* MDL=Minimum Detection Limits