Tracing Comanche history: eighteenth-century rock art depictions of leather-armoured horses from the Arkansas River basin, south-eastern Colorado, USA.

Mitchell, Mark D.

Introduction

Plains Indian rock art produced between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries frequently includes detailed and accurately rendered depictions of both western and native material culture. The careful study of such images can reveal their period of manufacture, and support inferences about the cultural identity of their makers. Comparisons among these images also can illuminate the processes by which western material culture was adopted and modified by Plains peoples.

Horses and horse tack are among the most lavishly illustrated motifs in Plains Indian rock art (Keyser 1987, 1991; Keyser & Klassen 2001; Keyser & Mitchell 2001). During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the adoption of the horse dramatically transformed the economies of both nomadic and semi-sedentary groups living in the Plains and adjacent regions. Increased mobility facilitated the exploitation of previously unavailable resources, and restructured the economic and social relationships among neighbouring groups. By the first few decades of the nineteenth century, ownership of horses had become an important form of wealth, and their acquisition and use had become the principal means to power. Accordingly, status in Plains societies derived from a system of war honours which emphasised personal bravery in combat. Artistic depictions of horses, and the exploits they enabled, were used to document the personal histories on which status was built, and constituted a public record of individual achievement. Great care was taken to accurately depict horses, their equipment, and the narrative structure of the events represented.

This nineteenth century practice of heraldic or biographic drawing was preceded by a long tradition of representational art that is known primarily from petroglyphs and pictographs. Even prior to the adoption of the horse, Plains Indians created incised and painted rock art images--known collectively as Ceremonial tradition art--that focused in part on the depiction of warriors, weapons and personal combat. These images also document the initial adoption of horses, and the new military technologies which accompanied their use (Keyser & Klassen 2001:222-223).

Following sixteenth century Spanish usage, the principal technological innovation associated with the adoption of the horse for military purposes was the use of leather armour. In skirmishes where firearms are not present, armoured horses and riders have a decisive tactical advantage over massed infantry. However, leather armour is bulky and provides ineffective protection against bullets; hence, such armour was abandoned as soon as firearms became widely available. Beginning as early as 1650, horses were acquired--through both trading and raiding--almost exclusively from the Spanish in northern New Mexico. At the same time, the Spanish imposed an effective embargo against the sale of firearms to Native Americans. However, by the middle of the eighteenth century, firearms became available from the French and to a lesser degree the English, who had established trading centres in the upper Midwest and Great Lakes regions. French traders may have visited the Comanche in western Kansas as early as 1748 and by 1751 the Comanche had established trade relationships with both the Wichita and the Pawnee, apparently at the urging of the French (Gunnerson & Gunnerson 1988: 29-30).

Thus, during the century between about 1650 and 1750 military tactics on the central and southern Plains were dominated by what Secoy (1953) terms the Post-horse-Pre-gun military technique pattern, which emphasised the use of highly mobile, leather-armoured cavalry. After the adoption of the horse, warriors were armed with lances and short bows, and both the horse and rider were protected by leather armour. By contrast, the Pre-horse military technique had emphasised the use of massed infantry armed with bows, spears and clubs (Secoy 1953:10). Such pedestrian warriors generally did not use body armour, but instead carried large shields for defence. A confrontation between these two military technique patterns is depicted on the Segesser I hide painting (Figure 1), an early eighteenth century illustration showing native cavalry attacking Apache infantry equipped with large shields (Hotz 1991).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Although documentary sources provide some information about the early use of armoured cavalry by Native Americans on the central Plains, all of the previously reported indigenous illustrations of horse armour are located oil the northern Plains. In this paper I describe four newly-discovered rock art depictions of armoured horses from the central Plains (Figure 2). These sites exhibit important similarities and differences with previously known northern Plains sites. A comparison of the images produced in each region provides insights into the processes by which Plains Indians appropriated western material culture.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Armoured horse petroglyphs in the Arkansas River Basin

A single armoured horse is illustrated at the Black Hole North site (5BA506), located on Two Butte Creek in east-central Baca County, Colorado. Located on the upper surface of a large Entrada Sandstone boulder, the image consists of a single incised horse and rider, unassociated with other representational motifs (Figure 3). A rough trapezoid represents the horse's armour, the trailing edge of which is flared and slightly longer than the leading edge. The front, back, and upper sides are straight, while the lower edge is slightly convex. A series of diagonal lines on the surface of the armour represent either construction details or decorative elements. An incised parallelogram on the upper portion of the armour may depict a second covering, or additional construction details. The horse's feet and head are depicted protruding from the margins of the armour.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

The rider is shown in front view and has a rectangular torso, a featureless round head and upraised arms. His legs are shown in "X-ray" style, straddling the horse's back, while his feet are shown as horizontal dashes. Five fingers are depicted on each hand. The horse's reins are shown adjacent to the rider's left hand and extending toward his head. Two lines roughly parallel and adjacent to the rider's torso may depict an article of clothing or, more likely, leather body armour. He holds a short lance in his left hand. Details of the horse's bridle are not depicted, nor does the rider carry a shield.

The petroglyph is drawn adjacent to the edge of the boulder, and as a result the horse's head is "wrapped" onto the adjoining rock face. Two types of incisions were used to create the petroglyph. The outline of the armour and the rider's torso and head were created from relatively deep V-shaped incisions measuring roughly 4 mm wide and 2 mm deep. Shallower, narrower incisions (1-2 mm wide and 1 mm deep) were used to form the rider's arms, the lance, the reins, and the horse's head and feet. A deep gouge has been cut in the rock just below the horse's neck. Groups of abstract lines adjacent to the horse and rider were constructed from both deep and shallow incisions. Spalls were removed from the surface of the boulder both before and after the image was created. Short subparallel incisions were drawn perpendicular to the edge of the boulder both above and below the horse's head. Such grooves or incisions, frequently arranged in horizontal or vertical rows and often located on the acute edges of boulders or cliff faces, are commonly associated with Ceremonial tradition rock art motifs on the central and southern Plains (Mitchell 2002). Although a variety of explanations have been offered for the form and placement of these incisions, at the Black Hole North site their clear association with the armoured horse petroglyph suggests that they may have been used to represent the locations of enemy warriors. In nineteenth century ledger drawings, rows or columns of short dashes commonly were used to indicate the size and location of an enemy force. The subparallel incisions at the Black Hole North site may represent an early example of this narrative convention (James D. Keyser, personal communication, 2003).

Two additional armoured horses are depicted at the Highland Headgate site (5BN 124), located on the Purgatoire River several miles south of its confluence with the Arkansas (Figures 4-6). Both are morphologically similar, although they differ in size. Both show the horse's armour as a rough trapezoid, with straight to slightly flaring front and back margins and curved top and bottom margins. The smaller petroglyph (Figure 4) measures 45 cm in height by 65 cm in length, while the larger petroglyph (Figure 5) is 135 cm high (including the height of the rider) and 170 cm wide. Neither image depicts the horse's feet. Both clearly show an armoured collar from which horse's head protrudes. In each case the animal's head is shown simply, with two bent lines indicating the horse's forelock and chin, and two straight lines indicating its ears (Figure 6). On the larger motif the horse's neck is depicted in "X-ray" style underneath the armoured collar. The larger image also shows a rectangular accessory of unknown function on the upper rear portion of the armour. A rider is not depicted on the smaller horse, nor are other abstract or representational petroglyphs directly associated with it. A rectangular body anthropomorph with upraised arms, round head and horned head-dress, which is executed in a similar manner, is located approximately 1.5 metres below the armoured horse.

[FIGURES 4-6 OMITTED]

By contrast, the larger petroglyph (Figure 5) is associated with a very complex field of both older and younger motifs. The armour is incised over numerous pecked abstract elements, some of which have been superimposed by incised lines that are either adjacent or connected to the horse petroglyph. The relatively broad, U-shaped incisions used to create the motif are roughly 15-20 mm wide and 5-10 mm deep. A very large, one-armed rectangular body anthropomorph is associated with the armoured horse; however it is unclear whether this figure is intended to represent a rider. No reins are shown extending from the horse's head to the figure's hand, and the body of the man is depicted somewhat lower on the horse's back than might be expected of an illustrated rider. On the other hand, the man's torso is clearly centred in the armour; was executed with incisions of identical depth and morphology as those that comprise the armour; and was created after the armour was created. The legs of the anthropomorph are incised, but are also partially superimposed onto older pecked abstract lines. The man's head is round, and his neck is clearly illustrated. An abraded cupule (cup-shape) appears to represent the figure's mouth, although eyes or other facial features are not depicted. Four fingers are shown on each hand. A smaller, armless, ladder-body anthropomorph with a horned head-dress is superimposed on the rear portion of the armour. The pecked "head-dress" motif located below the rider's torso clearly pre-dates the armoured horse. The incised anthropomorph located in front of the armoured horse probably represents an enemy combatant. Like many other Ceremonial tradition rock art panels, this scene depicts personal combat, the social and cultural importance of which was magnified by the adoption of the horse.

A fourth example of central Plains horse armour (Figure 7) is illustrated at the Paradise Creek site (14RU5), located on the Saline River in central Kansas (Horr & Johnson 1957: Figure 12p; O'Neill 1980). Although this image has been described by previous investigators as a "bison" or "Spanish mule," the element clearly depicts an armoured horse. The petroglyph incorporates characteristics of the images at the Highland Headgate site with those of the image at the Black Hole North site. At Paradise Creek, the armour is roughly trapezoidal in shape, with the trailing edge slightly flared. The image appears to show the horse's head protruding from an armoured collar, with the forelock, chin and ears illustrated. Like the illustration at the Black Hole North site, the example from Paradise Creek clearly depicts either construction or decorative details in the form of parallel, diagonal lines across the surface of the armour. The image appears to depict a rider, although it is not clear whether the drawing is complete. Portions of a shield of indeterminate size also may be illustrated. Unfortunately, the petroglyph appears to have been removed from the site, precluding further examination (O'Neill 1980).

[FIGURE 7 OMITTED]

A single element at the very complex Indian Hills site (14EW1), located in Ellsworth County, Kansas, may also depict an armoured horse (Horr & Johnson 1957: Figure 2i). However, this identification is uncertain, owing to the incompleteness of the available record and to the vandalism that has taken place at the site. In outline, the image is similar to the triangular-body horse depicted at 39HN210 in the North Cave Hills, South Dakota (Keyser 1984). Like that petroglyph, the body of the animal at 14EW1 is barred with vertical lines and its legs are illustrated somewhat haphazardly. However, no rider is depicted and shape of the head is not clearly illustrated.

Depictions of armoured horses on the Northern Plains

Relatively few rock art depictions of horse armour have been reported, all of them located on the northern Plains. Keyser (1977), the first to recognise the armoured horse motif in rock art, describes two such images at the Verdigris Coulee site (DgOw32) at Writing-On-Stone, Alberta (Figure 8a). Both are shown in combat scenes engaging pedestrian warriors. In both cases only the horse's head and feet protrude from the armour; neither illustrates an armoured collar protecting the horse's neck. The riders of both animals carry large shields, similar to those used by Pre-horse/pre-gun infantry. One of the horses is shown wearing roughly trapezoidal armour with a long trailing edge, while the other is shown with roughly rectangular armour. Lines and cross-hatching are shown on both.

[FIGURE 8 OMITTED]

Two additional armoured horses (Figure 9) are depicted at 39HN210 in the North Cave Hills of South Dakota (Keyser 1984). Like the horses at Writing-On-Stone, both are ridden by shield-bearing warriors. Both images show armour that is roughly trapezoidal, with relatively long trailing edges. In contrast to those at Writing-On-Stone, both clearly show protective collars, in one case with an "X-ray" view of the horse's neck underneath. Both horses wear decorated bridles (Keyser & Mitchell 2001).

[FIGURE 9 OMITTED]

A single armoured horse (Figure 8b) is illustrated at Goffena Rockshelter (24ML408) in south-central Montana (Lewis 1983). Like the images at Writing-on-Stone, the armoured cavalryman at Goffena engages a pedestrian warrior. Both combatants carry large shields. In this case, details of the armour's construction are clearly illustrated, and the horse appears to be wearing a decorated bridle.

Moyer (2000; see also Keyser & Klassen 2001: 233 & Lewis 1986) describes a very detailed depiction of horse armour from the Nordstrom-Bowen site (24YL419), also located in south-central Montana (Figure 8c). The image shows trapezoidal armour with a trailing edge and curved upper margin. The rider is depicted schematically and carries a lance. Details of the armour's construction are clearly indicated by a series of parallel incisions extending from the upper to the lower margins.

Two armoured horses are depicted at the Arminto site in the Powder River basin of northeastern Wyoming (Greer & Greer 2002). There, the horses' armour is roughly trapezoidal with concave upper margins, straight front and lower margins, and trailing, excurvate rear margins. The riders' bodies are rectangular and are centred in the armour. Unlike other northern Plains examples, the horses' boat-shaped bodies are shown in "X-ray" style underneath the armour. In one image the horse's head appears to protrude from an armoured collar and both horses wear decorated bridles.

Cultural affiliation of the image makers

American Indian groups known to have inhabited the upper Arkansas River basin after the adoption of the horse but before the widespread use of firearms include the Plains Apache, probably the Carlana, Penxayes and Cuartelejo bands, and the Comanche and their Ute allies. The Apache, who were among the first to make extensive use of the horse for both transportation and warfare, probably adopted both horse armour and personal body armour at least by 1680, and probably as early as 1650 (Secoy 1953: 20-21). The Comanche adoption of armoured cavalry techniques probably took place somewhat later, but was certainly underway by the first decade of the eighteenth century.

The regional distribution o frock art depictions of armoured horses suggests that the artists responsible for their creation had ties to the northern Plains. Indeed, most of the published illustrations of armoured horses, as well as all of the examples reported here, are closely associated with Ceremonial tradition motifs, the central elements of which include incised V-neck human figures, boat-form zoomorphs, and shield-bearing warriors (Keyser 1977; Keyser & Klassen 2001). Distinctive Ceremonial tradition motifs, including boat-form animals with bifurcated and trifurcated feet and heart lines, V-neck warriors, shield-bearing warriors, arrays or sequences of incised grooves and scenes depicting personal combat, are also present at other sites in south-eastern Colorado (Mitchell 2002). On the northern Plains such Ceremonial tradition images have frequently been attributed to Shoshone artists, to whom the Comanche are closely related (Gunnerson & Gunnerson 1988; Keyser 1975; Keyser & Klassen 2001). Although it is likely that several different groups manufactured Ceremonial tradition art, additional support for the connection between Comanche artists and eighteenth and nineteenth century incised equestrian rock art can be found at the Tolar petroglyph site in central Wyoming where illustrated material culture has been positively attributed to the Comanche (Loendorf & Olson 2003).

Several additional lines of evidence support the inference that the Comanche were the authors of the central Plains armoured horse petroglyphs. First, the images reported here are distinct from the Rio Grande tradition motifs that have been attributed to seventeenth-century Plains Apache artists. Apachean motifs generally include finely pecked depictions of bison and other animals, masks, corn plants, and shield-bearing warriors (Mitchell 2002; Schaafsma 1992). Although weapons are frequently depicted in Rio Grande tradition rock art, horses and horse tack do not appear to be common or important motifs. Moreover, element superimposition at the Highland Headgate site clearly indicates that pecked Rio Grande tradition motifs predate incised Ceremonial tradition motifs, an expected relationship given ethnohistorical data indicating that the Apache were driven from the region by the Comanche beginning in the first decade of the eighteenth century.

Finally, although the Ute appeared in south-eastern Colorado along with the Comanche, they are unlikely to have been the authors of the armoured horse petroglyphs described here. Several Ute rock art styles have been defined for western Colorado, long the Ute core region, which differ markedly in morphology and manufacturing technique from the incised motifs described here. In fact, images of horses and riders matching Ute styles do appear at the Highland Headgate site, but they are superimposed over pictographs of muskets which themselves appear to post-date the armoured horse images.

Discussion

It is likely that rock art depictions of armoured horses from the Arkansas River basin in south-eastern Colorado, as well as at least one image from central Kansas, were likely to have been produced by Comanche warriors who entered the region prior to 1706 (Gunnerson & Gunnerson 1988). By contrast, horses were not available on the northern Plains until at least the 1730's. Horse armour was probably abandoned throughout the Plains by the 1750's or 1760's, when firearms became more widely available. It is likely, therefore, that the Post-horse/Pre-gun military technique pattern was more fully developed on the central and southern Plains, an inference which is supported by the images themselves. Unlike the examples from Alberta, Montana, and South Dakota, central Plains armoured horses are not ridden by warriors carrying large shields, which represent a pre-horse military tactic. This suggests that skilled, experienced horsemen were responsible for the depictions of armoured horses on the central Plains, and that they were created some time after the initial adoption of the horse for military purposes. This may indicate that Comanche cavalry tactics were already well developed by the time they arrived in south-eastern Colorado, and that in fact their movement southward out of the intermountain basins may have been driven largely by a desire to acquire horses. In turn, this suggests that the Comanche were committed to an equestrian way of life long before they came to the attention of Spanish authorities in New Mexico. Moreover, the location of the Paradise Creek site, far to the east of the Comanche's Arkansas River base of operations, suggests that their initial eastward movement across the central Plains was relatively rapid.

The Arkansas River basin armoured horses also help to confirm the existence of at least two types of native horse armour. One variety includes an armoured collar, as shown on the Segesser I hide painting (Figure 1), at 39HN210 in the North Cave Hills (Figure 9) and at the Highland Headgate (Figures 4 and 5) and Paradise Creek sites (Figure 7), while the other lacks the armoured collar. These two types of armour may be indicative of cultural differences between their users, or may reflect change in the construction of horse armour over time. Other differences in the Ceremonial tradition rock art of the central Plains are also apparent. At Writing-On-Stone, Alberta, classic V-neck figures are an important motif, whereas rectangular body anthropomorphs dominate element assemblages on central Plains sites. Similarly, while the boat-form zoomorphs common to northern Plains sites are present on Arkansas River basin sites, such images are overshadowed by depictions of mature-style horses and bison. These distinctions suggest a differential evolution in the Ceremonial tradition that began with the migration of the Comanche southward sometime during the later decades of the seventeenth century. However, this separation between the northern and central branches of the tradition was not complete or permanent, as demonstrated by the likely Comanche authorship of motifs at the nineteenth century Tolar petroglyph site in central Wyoming (Loendorf & Olson 2003).

The analysis of the armoured horse petroglyphs described here provides important information about the history of the Plains region during the eighteenth century and new insights into the processes by which native peoples adopted Western material culture. Because the analysis of early historic period central Plains rock art is just beginning, it is likely that other motifs also may be amenable to such treatment.

Acknowledgements

I thank Ted and Alma Barker for sharing with me their knowledge about south-eastern Colorado rock art; without their enthusiasm and generosity this research would not have been possible. I am also grateful to Jim Keyser for his insight and unfailing encouragement, I received valuable assistance in this effort from David Moyer, John and Mavis Greet and Jimmy Arterberry and I thank them for their important contributions. The Highland Headgate site is located on private land and is not open for public visitation; I thank the landowners for their generous permission to visit the site.

Received: 1 August 2003; Accepted: 27 September 2003

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Mark D. Mitchell, Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA (Email: Mark.Mitchell@colorado.edu)