Hiatus or continuity? New results for the question of pleniglacial settlement in Central Europe.

Terberger, Thomas ; Street, Martin

Introduction

The publication by Housley et al. (1997) of a model for lateglacial recolonization of northern Europe opened a lively debate on this question (Blockley et al. 2000; Housley et al. 2000). A review of available radiocarbon dates for the Upper Palaeolithic suggested that the region was largely deserted by humans at around the Late Glacial Maximum sensu stricto (LGM: FIGURE 1) of the last Cold Stage: `The AMS [sup.14]C data clearly indicate an hiatus in occupation in many of the regions of northern Europe' (Housley et al. 1997: 35). The text makes clear that the `northern Europe' of the model includes large areas of western central Europe north of the Alps and extending to the British Isles as the most northwesterly outlier of Europe. The postulated lateglacial reoccupation of Europe, with origins in southwestern Europe, apparently reached the upper Rhineland (the Kesslerloch site) in a `pioneer phase' at c. 14,200 BP, only reaching the British Isles after 13,000 BP. The subsequent `residential phase', characterized by increased site density, would follow some 600-800 [sup.14]C years later.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Shortly after the above model was presented, new research in the Rhineland suggested that the concept of a complete pleniglacial desertion of central Europe was in need of revision. Excavation during the 1990s at the open-air loess site Wiesbaden-Igstadt (FIGURE 2) had uncovered the remains of a small camp of horse and reindeer hunters. Initial doubts as to the age of the site, due to unclear stratigraphy and inconsistent radiometric dating, were removed by a coherent series of AMS radiocarbon dates provided by the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU) (Terberger 1998; Pettitt et al. 1998; Street & Terberger 1999). The six results lie between 17,820 [+ or -] 240 BP (OxA-7500) and 19,320 [+ or -] 240 BP (OXA-7502), with a mean value c. 18,720 BP, close to the older result (TABLE 1). They show that occupation can most plausibly be dated to a period shortly after the LGM. The lack of parallels for Igstadt in the Rhineland prompted the authors to examine the evidence for contemporareneous human presence in central and western Europe at a larger regional scale (Street & Terberger 1999). With the cooperation of R.E.M. Hedges and P.B. Pettitt (ORAU) it was possible to date samples from a number of site, the results of which are presented and discussed by this paper.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

New dates for the Kastelhohle-Nord cave, northwestern Switzerland

The Kastelhohle cave is one of a number of important Upper Palaeolithic stations concentrated in the neighbouring Kaltbrunnental and Birsta) valleys (FIGURE 2) in the Basel-Land Canton of the Swiss Jura (Sedlmeier 1998; Leesch 1993). The double cave entrance opens over a breadth of 23 m at an elevation of some 30 m above the valley floor. Excavation took place from 1948-1950 and in 1954 under the direction of T. Schweitzer in cooperation with E. Schmid (Schweitzer 1959).

In the North Cave, a long trench extending from the cave interior located three Palaeolithic cultural layers separated by sterile deposits (Schmid 1959). A Middle Palaeolithic level was covered by a deep deposit of eboulis-rich loess and loam, itself overlain by a deposit of speleothem. A second archaeological layer was located between this unit and a new overlying deposit containing cryogenic debris, above which followed the third, greyish-black cultural deposit. On the basis of the lithic assemblage and organic artefacts such as eyed needles, awls and projectile points, the uppermost cultural horizon was classified as Upper Magdalenian or `Type E Magdalenian' (Sedlmeier 1998; Leesch 1993: 162). This attribution provides a terminus ante quem for the underlying, middle cultural horizon which is of interest here.

This Middle Horizon delivered a relatively poor assemblage of 260 lithic artefacts and some fragmented bones. The lithic assemblage is characterized by poorly standardized blade technology with a high proportion of flakes, which were often retouched into tools. Only two of the total of nine scrapers are classic blade scrapers, while one scraper on a thick flake resembles a carinated form. Another feature of the assemblage is the total absence of abrupt backed or retouched bladelets.

Already in 1959, R. Bay had drawn attention to parallels between the Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon and the early Magdalenian of western Europe (Bay 1959) (FIGURE 3). This comparison was pursued more recently and J.-M. Le Tensorer (1986:31) subsequently suggested affinities with the Magdalenian III at Laugerie Haute. In an even more recent synthesis of the Swiss Magdalenian, the Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon was defined as the `Type A Magdalenian' and linked to the French Badegoulian, this being the now generally accepted term for what was once referred to as Magdalenian 0 and 1 (Leesch 1993, 155; Le Tensorer 1998). The Badegoulian hypothesis could not be supported by two radiocarbon dates obtained in the 1980s of 13,990 [+ or -] 150 BP (B-4636) and 7200 [+ or -] 160 BP (B-4638) (Honeisen et al. 1993: 156). The clear deviation of the absolute dates from the expected age of the assemblage was considered to be due to contamination and it is probably this absence of reliable radiometric dates for the Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon which has prevented it being generally recognized as evidence for a Badegoulian presence in central Europe (e.g. by Housley et al. 1997).

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

Against this background it seemed important to attempt once again to date the Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon assemblage by absolute methods. That this was finally successful is due to the efforts of J. Sedlmeier, whose systematic review of the entire assemblage enabled him to identify faunal material unaffected by consolidants, from which three samples carrying traces of human modification were selected for AMS dating. The results are quite consistent, with a mean age of 19,100 BP (TABLE 1), and demonstrate conclusively a human presence in northwest Switzerland shortly after the LGM of the last glaciation.

The burial at Mittlere Klause, Neuessing, Bavaria

The importance of the Palaeolithic burial of a 30-40-year-old man from the Mittlere Klause cave in Bavaria has been recognized since its discovery in 1914, although the exact chronological context of the find has been the subject of some discussion (e.g. by Orschiedt 1999). The presence of foliate points in the lithic material recovered from the cave and the fact that the grave had been disturbed by an overlying Magdalenian level suggested a Solutrean context to the excavators, an interpretation which is today of purely historical interest. Nevertheless, a conventional radiocarbon date of 18,200 [+ or -] 200 BP (UCLA-1869), obtained during the 1970s (Protsch & Glowatzki 1974), suggested that the grave was indeed older than the Magdalenian. This interpretation has sometimes been criticized, most recently by B. Wuller (1999: 53), who rejects the radiocarbon date and argues for an attribution of the grave to the Magdalenian.

On the initiative of the authors a renewed dating of the skeleton was undertaken and an ochre-stained fragment of vertebra weighing c. 3 g was dated following the usual ORAU pretreatment. The correspondence at one standard deviation between the ORAU AMS result (OXA-9856) of 18,590 [+ or -] 260 BP (table 1) and the UCLA date is close and, in the view of the authors, confirms a date for the Mittlere Klause burial close to the LGM.

The Badegoulian in western central Europe?

The new radiocarbon dates presented here provide information on the human occupation of central Europe around the LGM which can be discussed only briefly here. (1)

Wiesbaden-Igstadt, Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon and the Mittlere Klause burial together demonstrate human presence in western central Europe between c. 19,500 and 18,000 BP. Calibration of the radiocarbon ages and their correlation with climatic data from Greenland ice cores suggests a (perhaps causal) relationship with Greenland Interstadial GI 2 (see Weissmuller 1997; Joris & Weninger 1998; 1999), i.e. after the end of the LGM sensu stricto.

Wiesbaden-Igstadt and Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon reveal great similarities, not only in their chronological position but also in the recovered lithic assemblages. At both sites the production of regular blades is unimportant, whereas the use of flakes for the production of tools is common. Equally, both assemblages are characterized by the presence of `archaic' elements, such as nosed and carinated end scrapers, while backed components are absent. At the Swiss site a retouched flake can be regarded as a `raclette', while the German assemblage contains transverse burins. The most pertinent parallels for both sites appear to be assemblages of the French Badegoulien ancien/Early Badegoulian (e.g. Hemingway 1980: 233; Trotignon 1984: 85), which suggests the presence of this technocomplex as far east as the Swiss Jura and the central Rhineland. The dates for the Mittlere Klause burial indicate human presence at this time even further to the East.

Against this background a site in Thuringia known since the 1920s is of especial interest. A Palaeolithic locality on the Zoitzberg close to Gera was indeed already described by R. Feustel (1965) as early Magdalenian or Badegoulian, but has found little recognition in the subsequent literature. (2) There are no preserved organic remains which might enable absolute dating of the site, but in the light of the results from Wiesbaden-Igstadt and Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon the authors feel that, on typological analogy, the Zoitzberg assemblage might indeed be provisionally referred to the Badegoulian, extending the range of this technocomplex as far as Thuringia (FIGURE 2). It seems that it is only a matter of time before further assemblages of this type are recognized in western central Europe.

East meets West--long-range European contacts immediately after the LGM?

It has been argued above that the distribution of industries typologically and chronologically similar to the Badegoulian can now be extended to western central Europe. However, a closer examination of the absolute dates of the sites in question opens up a further point of interest. Radiocarbon dates for the Early Badegoulian in France (Bosselin & Djindjian 1997a) fall between 18,400 [+ or -] 200 BP (Gif-6798: Cuzoul a Vers 24) and 17,280 [+ or -] 350 BP (Ly-1123: Abri Fritsch 5b) and are thus appreciably younger than both the oldest dates for Wiesbaden-Igstadt (19,320 [+ or -] 240 BP) and the Kastelhohle-Nord Middle Horizon (19,620+140 BP) and the mean values of all dates at the two sites (TABLE 1). How can this tentatively younger age for the French Badegoulian be explained?

Methodological problems might be considered first. The French chronology is largely based on series of conventional radiocarbon dates and new AMS results might possibly tend to give a higher age. This argument can be countered by examining radiocarbon dating results for the French Late Solutrean/ Solutreen recent (Bosselin & Djindjian 1997a). Values for this group fall in the 20th millennium BP and are very consistent, irrespective of whether they are conventional dates or, as in the case of Combe Sauniere, AMS results (TABLE 1). In addition, it can be seen that the dates for the Late Solutrean and the Early Badegoulian are mutually exclusive; the central European dates straddle the divide between them.

In summary, the authors believe that both of the central European sites assigned here to the Badegoulian are at least as old as and, on the present evidence, probably older than, the Early Badegoulian sites in France, which makes the scenario of a Badegoulian expansion into central Europe from the west appear unlikely

If we look to the east, the main phase of occupation at the site of Grubgraben in Lower Austria begins with Level 4 at c. 18,860 BP (Damblon et al. 1996: 185; Einwogerer & Kafer 1998). Both this mean value of all radiocarbon dates and the oldest date at Grubgraben (19,270 [+ or -] 80 BP: GrN-21790) are very similar to those from Wiesbaden-Igstadt. The lithic assemblage from Level 4 (to date only partially published) and that from Levels 3/2 both have features also found in the Badegoulian (cf. Montet-White 1990; Brandtner 1996). Blade production is less important and tools are commonly made on flakes, while nosed and carinated end scrapers and also a number of side scrapers give the assemblage a somewhat archaic or `aurignacoid' appearance. Characteristic are multiple `star-shaped' awls or perforators and, although small retouched forms are present, classic backed bladelets appear to be rare. On balance, the Grubgraben finds reveal great similarities to Badegoulian assemblages and can be interpreted as an eastern central European phenomenon equivalent to the latter. In this light the description of the Grubgraben assemblage by the broad term `Epigravettian' appears less than satisfactory.

In our present state of knowledge we can propose contact and cultural exchange between eastern central Europe and western Europe at a time (c. 19,000 BP) very soon after the LGM. This phase of contact appears to have been initiated by, and continued after, the Greenland Interstadial 2 phase of warming (FIGURE 1). This can probably be equated with the Laugerie Interstadial in France, where it is associated with the Late Solutrean. At Grubgraben this more humid episode is probably marked by the Level 4 cultural horizon (Haesarts 1990). It is arguable that eastern influences at this time contributed to the development of the Badegoulian in western Europe.

Concluding remarks: neither hiatus nor continuity

The authors have pointed out elsewhere (Street & Terberger 2000) that there are only few indications of a Gravettian presence younger than 25,000 BP in western central Europe. Two conventional radiocarbon dates between 23,000 and 20,000 BP from the Bockstein-Torle in Baden-Warttemberg should be controlled by new measurements. If the reliability of the dating is confirmed, an occupation of the Bockstein Torle at this time would indicate a sporadic presence of humans in western central Europe during the coldest phase of the last Glacial. This might find a parallel at Langmannersdorf in Lower Austria (Hahn 1977: 168) and would be broadly equivalent to the `Aurignacien V' (or `Protosolutreen') of southwestern France (Bosselin & Djindjian 1997a; 1997b).

By contrast, the human calvarium from Binshof-Speyer in the Rhineland, until now assigned to the Pleniglacial on the basis of a radiocarbon date, has recently been shown by AMS dating to be a Bronze Age human and irrelevant to the present discussion (Terberger & Street 2001).

AMS dates presented here for the Middle Horizon at Kastelhohle-Nord in the Swiss Jura and previously obtained results for Wiesbaden-Igstadt in the central Rhineland show that humans were present in western central Europe very soon after the LGM. Features of the lithic assemblages suggest a relationship with the French Early Badegoulian. On the evidence of the Zoitzberg site and the Mittlere Klause burial, it is suggested that the distribution of assemblages of Badegoulian type, or at least contemporary human presence, might be extended to Thuringia and Bavaria respectively.

Similarities between Swiss, German and Austrian lithic assemblages dated by radiocarbon to shortly after the LGM and French Badegoulian industries suggest that by the time of Greenland Interstadial 2 (Laugerie Interstadial) environmental conditions might have so far improved as to allow renewed contacts between eastern central and western Europe.

The mean absolute age of the Swiss (Kastelhohle-Nord, Middle Horizon: 19,100 BP), German (Wiesbaden-Igstadt: 18,720 BP) and Austrian (Grubgraben c. 19,000 BP) sites is higher than that of the French Early Badegoulian sites and does not suggest that the central European assemblages can simply be regarded as a peripheral expansion of/derived from the Badegoulian. The chronological priority of the central European sites instead suggests that influences from eastern Europe could have played a formative role in the emergence of the western Badegoulian industries.

After 18,000 BP there follows a renewed gap in the record of the human occupation of western central Europe, but the sporadic indications for a human presence in the 16th millennium BP (Pasda 1998), i.e. before the well-documented expansion of the Upper Magdalenian, will not be discussed here.

In summary, and in a revision of previous views (Housley et al. 1997), we believe that the radiocarbon-dated archaeological record for western central Europe in the period 23,000-14,000 BP demonstrates neither an extended hiatus in settlement nor continuous occupation. Humans showed great flexibility in their reactions to the extreme climatic fluctuations of the last glacial period and hunter-gatherer groups appear to have occupied (or at least traversed or exploited) regions deserted during the LGM as soon as improved conditions (e.g. Greenhmd Interstadial 2/Laugerie Interstadial) allowed (FIGURE 1). As a result, the period around and following the LGM was characterized not only by the generally accepted cultural isolation of eastern and western Europe, but also by phases of contact between them, across central Europe north of the Alps (Terberger 2001). These would inevitably lead to exchanges and influencing of material culture and technology. At an earlier period, now documented by this paper, the direction of this influence on lithic technology appears to be from east to west, leading to the development of `rudimentary', flake-dominated industries, while during the much better documented Late Glacial `recolonization' (cf. Housley et al. 1997) the direction of influence (Upper Magdalenian expansion) is clearly from the west to the east.

 uncalibrated
site lab. no. AMS date (BP)

Solutreen recent
Abri Fritsch
8d GrN-5499 19,180 [+ or -] 230
Cuzoul a Vers
30 Gif-6699 19,400 [+ or -] 210
Solutre
 Ly-1533 19,590 [+ or -] 280
Combe Sauniere
IV-1 OxA-489 19,450 [+ or -] 330
IV-8 OxA-752 19,490 [+ or -] 350
IV-9 OxA-753 19,630 [+ or -] 320
Laugerie Haute Ouest
5 GrN-4442 19,600 [+ or -] 140
5 GrN-4495 19,740 [+ or -] 140
2 GrN-4605 19,870 [+ or -] 190
2 GrN-4441 20,000 [+ or -] 240

western central Europe
Wiesbaden-Igstadt
 UZ-3768 17,210 [+ or -] 135
 OxA-7500 17,820 [+ or -] 240
 OxA-7501 18,220 [+ or -] 180
 OxA-6809 18,670 [+ or -] 160
 OxA-6808 19,080 [+ or -] 160
 OxA-7406 19,200 [+ or -] 160
 OxA-7502 19,320 [+ or -] 240
Grubgraben
A.L.1 Lv-1825 16,800 [+ or -] 280
A.L.2b Lv-1821 17,350 [+ or -] 190
A.L.3 Lv-1810 18,030 [+ or -] 270
A.L.2a Lv-1823 18,070 [+ or -] 270
A.L.2-4 Lv-1660 18,170 [+ or -] 300
A.L.4 Lv-1680 18,400 [+ or -] 330
A.L.2b Lv-1822 18,620 [+ or -] 220
A.L.4 GrN-21893 18,820 [+ or -] 160
A.L.4 GrN-21790 19,270 [+ or -] 80
Kastelhohle-Nord
 OxA-9737 18,530 [+ or -] 150
 OxA-9739 19,200 [+ or -] 150
 OxA-9738 19,620 [+ or -] 140
Mittlere Klause
 UCLA-1869 18,200 [+ or -] 200
 OxA-9856 18,590 [+ or -] 260

Badegoulien ancien
Cuzoul a Vers
23 Gif-6370 18,300 [+ or -] 200
24 Gif-6798 18,400 [+ or -] 200
Laugerie Haute Est
18 Ly-972 18,260 [+ or -] 360
Abri Fritsch
5b Ly-1123 17,280 [+ or -] 350
6 Ly-1124 17,980 [+ or -] 150
Pegourie
9a Ly-1836 17,420 [+ or -] 390

Acknowledgements. The authors thank Dr Jurg Sedlmeier (Himmelried) and the Kantonsarchaologie in Solothurn for their support of the present project. Thanks are due to Prof. Dr G. Grupe and Dr P. Schroter (Anthropologische Staatssammlung Munchen) for authorization to take radiocarbon samples and for helpful information. The authors thank M. Kussner, Halle University, for the reference to the Zoitzberg site. The authors thank Olaf Joris for help with FIGURE 2.

(1) The following deliberations are presented in detail by a thesis (Habilitationsschrift) by T. Terberger (2001).

(2) A new analysis of the assemblage will be carried out by M. Kussner and T. Terberger.

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THOMAS TERBERGER & MARTIN STREET *

* Street, Forschungsbereich Altsteinzeit, Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Schloss Monrepos, D-56567 Neuwied, Germany. mjs.monrepos@rz-online.de Terberger, Lehrstuhl fur Ur- und Fruhgeschichte, Universitat Greifswald, Hans-Fallada-Strasse 1, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany. terberge@uni-greifswald.de

Received 19 September 2001, accepted 31 January 2002, revised 6 June 2002