New evidence for an early date for the Aegean Late Bronze Age and Thera eruption.

Manning, Sturt W. ; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk ; Doumas, Christos 等

Introduction

Marked controversy surrounds the dates for both the beginning of the Aegean Late Bronze Age and the associated eruption of the Thera (Santorini) volcano (e.g. Hardy & Renfrew 1990; Manning 1999). We report new sets of [sup.14]C (radiocarbon) data from the Aegean. These offer important clarification to existing data and scholarship. They demonstrate that the long-held conventional dates derived from archaeological cross-dating appear incorrect (too low by around 100 years), and instead support much earlier date ranges. This has great significance for the correct interpretation of Aegean-Egyptian linkages in the mid 2nd millennium BC.

The conventional chronology of the Aegean Late Bronze Age places the diagnostic initial cultural phases, the Late Minoan IA and IB phases of Crete (LMIA, LMIB), respectively c. 1600/1580 to 1480 BC, and c. 1480-1425 BC (Warren & Hankey 1989). This chronology derives from over a century of intensive scholarship interpreting the limited and often ambiguous material culture exchanges and stylistic associations between the approximately historically dated civilization of Egypt, and the Aegean. The eruption of the Thera volcano, located in the mature LMIA phase (Hardy & Renfrew 1990; Warren & Hankey 1989: 72-8, 214; Warren 1999; Manning 1999; Macdonald 2001), is dated c. 1520-1500 BC following this approach (e.g. Warren 1984; 1998; 1999). Attempts over the last 20 odd years to revise the dates for either the LMIA and IB phases, or the eruption of Thera, have been firmly rejected by most leading scholars associated with the conventional chronology (e.g. Warren 1984; 1985; 1987; 1998; Eriksson 1992; Matthaius 1995; Bietak & Hein 2001; Wiener 2001). Nonetheless, a variety of data, both archaeological and scientific, indicate that an alternative chronological scheme some 100 years or so earlier is viable (e.g. Kemp & Merrillees 1980; Betancourt 1987; Manning 1988; 1999; Manning et al. 2001; in press; Marketou et al. 2001), leaving the field characterized by deep controversy for the past 20 years.

This project

We sought to test and refine current date estimates for the beginning of the Aegean Late Bronze Age by [sup.14]C dating carefully selected organic materials from specific contexts in the Aegean from the LMIA and IB phases: TABLE 1 and FIGURE 1. New data presented here were measured at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit. TABLE 1 and FIGURE 1 also include eight previously published Oxford data (Housley et al. 1999) and four previously published Copenhagen data (Friedrich et al. 1990). Calibration and statistical analysis employed the OxCal 3.5 (2000 release) software package (at 1-year resolution with cubic interpolation off--all calibrated ages rounded to whole integers) and the current, internationally recommended, INTCAL98 [sup.14]C calibration dataset (Bronk Ramsey 1995; 2000; Stuiver et al. 1998a).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Late Minoan IA

To estimate the date range of the LMIA phase, we consider data from the early and then late parts of the LMIA phase from Trianda, Rhodes, and data from the mature to late LMIA phase, and late LMIA Volcanic Destruction Level (VDL), at Akrotiri, Thera. The Trianda material from early LMIA consists of: (i) a 30-year (tree-rings) pith to bark (cutting year) oak branch sample (AE1024), with the bark offering a specific terminus post quem for a point in early LMIA, and, as a relatively short-lived branch (non-architectural) sample from an area of industrial (grinding) debris, in fact a likely date close to its human use in early LMIA, and (ii) two other non-defined small wood charcoal samples (OxA-10623, 10642). The 30-year sample to bark (AE1024) was dated as three consecutive 10-year sections. The defined sequence--wiggle-match--calibration for the outer decade is, at 1[sigma] (68.2%) confidence, 1857-1840 BC, P=0.188, 1765-1716 BC, P=0.736, 1698-1689 BC, P=0.076, and, at 2[sigma] (95.4%) confidence, 1865-1833 BC, P=0.184, 1814-1787 BC, P=0.082, 1774-1680 BC, P=0.734. The sample was thus cut/used at the very latest c. 1689/1680 BC, and probably c. 1765-1716 BC. The late LMIA samples comprise a short-lived oak twig, which offers the best specific datum for the context (1[sigma] calibrated age for this sample in isolation is: 1736-1713 BC, P=0.16, 1692-1605 BC, P=0.84, 2[sigma] 1741-1598 BC, P=0.82, 1589-1527 BC, P=0.18), and two other wood charcoal samples (OXA-10640,10641). Analysis of the data shows that the Trianda LMIA set, as a whole, lies from the later 18th century BC through 17th century BC: FIGURE 2. Only if the phase is considered very long can the end of the phase lie beyond the first couple of decades of the 16th century BC.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Our evidence from Akrotiri, Thera, relates to two successive phases within mature-late LMIA: (i) outermost tree-rings to bark (cutting/ use date) from relatively short-lived (non-architectural) material (two branches: 65/N001/ I2, and M4N003) employed within the final mature-late LMIA phase at the site, and (ii) short-lived samples from the VDL at Akrotiri, comprising a twig, and three samples of annual-growth plant matter stored at the time the site was abandoned shortly before the eruption (Friedrich et al. 1990). The latter should in effect date the eruption minus a year or so at most.

The noteworthy feature of the two branch samples is the significant variation in [sup.14]C ages for adjacent rings (overall 3446 BP to 3293 BP), and between the average ages of the two samples (3404 [+ or -] 17 BP vs 3325 [+ or -] 16 BP). It is notable that very similar marked variation has been evident in other datasets run in the past on samples from LMIA Akrotiri (see datasets in Hardy & Renfrew 1990), confirmed now as real variation by the new, much more precise, data presented here. The plausible explanation is that these samples derive from a period when there were rapid and significant changes both up and down in atmospheric [sup.14]C levels (and hence the observed variation in [sup.14]C ages for samples from within a few years to a couple of decades of each other in real calendar terms). In support of this hypothesis, the [sup.14]C ages offer strong correspondence with just such a period observed in the standard INTCAL98 decadal resolution high-precision [sup.14]C calibration dataset c. 1695-1635 BC: FIGURE 3. Moreover, the calibration curve, while correctly reflecting the 10-year trend, masks further, often significant, up/ clown variations at annual level; these variations tend to be more pronounced at times of rapid changes in [sup.14]C[0.sub.2] gradient (Stuiver & Braziunas 1998; 1993; Stuiver et al. 1998b). Thus the range in the data fits best such a period of changing and steep gradients. As noted, the only suitable candidate range is c. 1695-1635 BC.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

Numerous [sup.14]C ages have been published for short-lived samples from the VDL at Akrotiri (Hardy & Renfrew 1990). However, most of these data are unsatisfactory (see Manning 1999: 232-46; 1990). The key problem is the need to ensure samples that solely represent their own constituent carbon. If samples cannot be properly pretreated to remove possible humic acid contamination, this requirement cannot be satisfied. This caveat applies to most of the short-lived samples so far dated from Akrotiri, Only one group of workers (Friedrich et al. 1990) deliberately selected and dated fully charred samples, which could be properly pretreated to remove contaminating humic acids. We use these Copenhagen Laboratory (K) data: TABLE 1 and FIGURE 1. The coherent pooled age of these samples (3356 [+ or -] 32 BP) provides calibrated calendar age ranges strongly in support of a 17th-century BC date range--1[sigma] 1688-1604 BC (P=0.93), 1554-1542 BC (P=0.07); 2[sigma]: 1737-1711 (P=0.08), 1693-1598 BC (P=0.70), 1590-1527 BC (P=0.22). Despite discussion of possible contaminants--rejected in full discussion by the scientists involved--it is noteworthy that the only other large set of measurements on carefully selected short-lived samples from the VDL at Akrotiri (Housley et al. 1990), with all samples receiving a standard pretreatment (Oxford Series I), yielded an effectively identical pooled age: 3357 [+ or -] 21 BP (calibrated calendar ages at 1[sigma] 1685-1676 BC, P=0.14, 1674-1620 BC, P=0.86; 2[sigma]: 1735-1714 BC, P=0.05, 1691-1601 BC, P=0.83, 1574-1531 BC, P=0.12).

We may test and refine the Copenhagen calibrated range by considering these K data in relation to the new evidence presented in this paper: in particular, we may analyse the clear relative sequence available from multi-data sets from within the LMIA phase from (i) early LMIA (3 determinations, with last to bark, from sample AE1024), (ii) mature-late LMIA (8 determinations on sub-decadal total-growth samples M4N003 and 65/N0001/I2) and then (iii) the Copenhagen VDL data: FIGURE 4. This strongly supports a (mid-later) 17th-century sc date range for the Akrotiri VDL. Only if the LMIA phase is considered to be very long (150+ years) is a 16th-century BC date for the VDL even plausible.

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

Late Minoan IB

We also sought to best define the end of the subsequent LMIB phase, which at a number of sites on Crete is characterized by fire destructions. These are considered more or less contemporary across Crete; thus the close of the LMIB phase represents a relatively clear-cut horizon (Driessen & Macdonald 1997; Housley et al. 1999). Short-lived, annual growth, samples were dated from the LMIB destructions at two sites: Chania and Myrtos-Pyrgos (Housley et al. 1999). The samples should offer [sup.14]C ages contemporary with these destruction horizons. The data also repeat, and confirm at much increased precision, measurements made in an earlier study (Housley et al. 1999). The data from each site should a priori offer [sup.14]C ages for the same year (or at most a few years) of growth.

The data from Myrtos-Pyrgos, both new data in this study and previous Oxford data, are coherent: weighted average age from new data 3230 [+ or -] 14 BP (n=4) (including previous data: 3229 [+ or -] 13 BP, n=8). The 1[sigma] calibrated age (new data) is 1518-1494 BC (P=0.60), or 1476-1459 BC (P=0.40). The data from Chania differ in two important ways (the new data confirming, but refining, the previous data), and so allow us to determine an even more precise date. Firstly, although their real calendar age should be close to the Myrtos-Pyrgos samples, they yield on average an older [sup.14]C age: new data 3267 [+ or -] 13 BP (previous data 3289 [+ or -] 37 BP). The 1[sigma] calibrated age (new data) is 1599-1586 BC (P=0.29), 1584-1565 BC (P=0.32) or 1530-1516 BC (P = 0.39--within the overall probability distribution the obvious maximum probability best fit point is at c. 1522 BC). Secondly, there is significant internal variation within the set from 3208 to 3338 BP in the new data (3150 to 3380 BP in the previous data), although the actual calendar age of the samples should be close to identical. The unique explanatory solution to these two observations is that the Chania data must derive from a year or two during the short but dramatic gradient in atmospheric [sup.14]C[O.sub.2] levels c. 1525-1515 BC (FIGURE 3), and the Myrtos-Pyrgos data fit at the base of this gradient: FIGURES 5 & 6. If the calendar gap between the Chania and Myrtos-Pyrgos destructions of the end of LMIB is non-existent to short (0-5 years), then the Myrtos-Pyrgos destruction best fits around 1519-1512 BC; if the gap was longer, then the Myrtos-Pyrgos destruction progressively lies later on the effective plateau in the calibration curve c. 1515-1455 BC: see FIGURES 5 & 6 (and cf. FIGURE 3). Over a range of possible gaps of 0-50 years, Chania hardly moves (best fit varies between 1519-1524 BC). The 1[sigma] fit range for Myrtos-Pyrgos only includes years in the 15th century BC once the gap is >15 years, and, even with a gap up to 50 years, does not provide a date later than 1460 BC (1453 BC at 2[sigma]). However, a significant calendar interval between the two destructions appears highly unlikely from the archaeological evidence, which strongly indicates approximate contemporaneity. Further, the two [sup.14]C determinations made in the 1970s on short-lived sample matter from the same LMIB destruction context at Myrtos-Pyrgos (P-2113, 3320 [+ or -] 60 BP and P-2114, 3320 [+ or -] 60 BP: Fishman & Lawn 1978: 213), with older [sup.14]C ages similar to the older ages in the new and previous Chania sets, also indicate the likelihood that the Myrtos-Pyrgos destruction lies on, or close to, the steep gradient in [sup.14]C[O.sub.2] levels c. 1525-1515 BC.

[FIGURES 5-6 OMITTED]

Conclusions

It has been stated that [sup.14]C dating could not contribute to Aegean Late Bronze Age chronology; the material culture linkages were thought to be more precise. However, the present study demonstrates the contrary. Quality [sup.14]C data require, and tightly define, a new chronology, and disprove the conventional assumptions and interpretations. By convention, the start date for LMIA was placed c. 1600/1580 BC, but we have found that a specific and probably narrow terminus post quem, and possibly even actual date, for early LMIA pre-dates at a minimum c. 1689/1680 BC, and in fact probably lies c. 1765-1716 BC; we have found that the mature-late parts of the phase lie in the 17th century BC, and not the 16th century BC; and we have found that the phase probably ends around c. 1610-1590 BC, and not c. 1480 BC as conventionally held. The eruption of the Thera volcano is best dated c. 1650-1620 BC, and not 1520-1500 BC. The conventional chronology must be revised by over 100 years. We have found that the end of the succeeding LMIB phase (as represented at two sides, one in northwest Crete, one in southeast Crete) probably lies c. 1522-1512 BC (1528-1503 BC total 1[sigma] range--assuming a 0-10-year gap between the Chania and Myrtos-Pyrgos destructions), and not c. 1425 BC as conventionally held. The new `high' Aegean chronology (see further Manning 1999; Manning et al. 2001; in press) supported by our data has far-reaching implications: in particular, the LMIA Aegean world, a high point of Minoan civilization, would not be largely contemporary with and influenced by the Egyptian 18th Dynasty (the early New Kingdom), starting c. 1550/1540 BC, as long-held, but instead contemporary with the preceding and very different Hyksos period of Egypt, when northern Egypt was controlled by a Canaanite dynasty with links in the Levant.

TABLE 1. Radiocarbon dates from sites in Greece from Late Minoan IA and
IB period contexts presented and/or employed in this study.

lab no. samples

EARLY LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10728 AE1024, oak charcoal rings 21-30(bark)
OxA-10729 AE1024, oak charcoal rings 11-20
OxA-10730 AE1024, oak charcoal rings 1(pith)-10
OxA-10623 charcoal
OxA-10642 olive charcoal

MID TO MATURE LATE MINOAN IA
Akrotiri, Thera--outer rings of two short-lived wood samples from
 volcanic destruction level
OxA-10312 65/N001/I2, tamarix? charcoal,
 ring 3 (bark) of 3
OxA-10313 65/N001/I2, tamarix? charcoal, ring 2 of 3
OxA-10314 65/N001/I2, tamarix? charcoal,
 ring 1 (pith) of 3
OxA-10315 M4N003, olive charcoal, rings 6-8
 (ring below bark)
OxA-10316 M4N003, olive charcoal, rings 3-5
OxA-10317 M4N003, olive charcoal, rings 7-8
 (ring below bark)
OxA-10318 M4N003, olive charcoal, rings 5-6
OxA-10319 M4N003, olive charcoal, rings 3-4

MATURE TO LATE LATE MINOAN IA--VOLCANIC DESTRUCTION LEVEL ON THERA
Akrotiri, Thera--short-lived samples from Volcanic Destruction Level
 (Friedrich et al. 1990)
K-3228 W House, Rm 5, Delta 3, pulses
K-4255 House 3, Delta 1, tamarix twig
K-5352 W House, Rm 3, Grnd Flr, Pot 3, pulses
K-5353 Bronos 1a, hearth, pulses

LATE LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10640 charcoal
OxA-10641 charcoal
OxA-10643 oak charcoal, twig

LATE/CLOSE OF LATE MINOAN IB
Chania, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan IB
 destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)

(i) new data this study

(i)
OxA-10320 TR17, 1984, Rm C, seeds, Vicia faba
OxA-10321 TR17, 1984, Rm C, seeds, barley
OxA-10322 TR10, Rm E, seeds, peas
OxA-10323 TR24,1989, L6, BA1, seeds

Myrtos-Pyrgos, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan
 IB destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)
OxA-10324 K5,2,1, charred seeds, barley
OxA-10325 K5/K6,2,1, charred seeds, Vicia ervilia
OxA-10326 K5/L6,2,2, charred seeds, Vicia ervilia
OxA-10411 K5,2,4, charred seeds, barley

(ii) previous data for samples of same description from the same
contexts (Housley et al. 1999), and comparison with new data

lab no.

(ii)
OxA-2518
OxA-2646
OxA-2517
OxA-2647

OxA-3187
OxA-3189
OxA-3225
OxA-3188

 [sup.14]C
lab no. [delta][sup.13]C age BP 1[sigma]

EARLY LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10728 -25.3 3455 45
OxA-10729 -25.9 3410 45
OxA-10730 -25.5 3490 45
OxA-10623 -23.5 3245 45
OxA-10642 -25.2 3333 39

MID TO MATURE LATE MINOAN IA
Akrotiri, Thera--outer rings of two short-lived wood samples from
 volcanic destruction level
OxA-10312 -24.0 3293 28 *
OxA-10313 -24.1 3353 28 *
OxA-10314 -24.5 3330 28 *
OxA-10315 -24.0 3446 39
OxA-10316 -24.4 3342 38
OxA-10317 -24.1 3440 35
OxA-10318 -24.2 3355 40
OxA-10319 -24.4 3424 38

MATURE TO LATE LATE MINOAN IA--VOLCANIC DESTRUCTION LEVEL ON THERA
Akrotiri, Thera--short-lived samples from Volcanic Destruction Level
 (Friedrich et al. 1990)
K-3228 -20.6 3340 56 *
K-4255 -23.8 3380 61 *
K-5352 -22.5 3310 65 *
K-5353 -20.5 3430 90 *

LATE LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10640 -25.4 3338 40
OxA-10641 -24.4 3498 39
OxA-10643 -26.3 3367 39

LATE/CLOSE OF LATE MINOAN IB
Chania, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan IB
 destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)

(i) new data this study

(i)
OxA-10320 -22.8 3208 27 *
OxA-10321 -22.1 3268 28 *
OxA-10322 -23.9 3338 27 *
OxA-10323 -23.3 3253 26 *

Myrtos-Pyrgos, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan
 IB destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)
OxA-10324 -22.4 3270 27 *
OxA-10325 -23.4 3228 27 *
OxA-10326 -22.4 3227 26 *
OxA-10411 -26.5 3150 41 *

(ii) previous data for samples of same description from the same
contexts (Housley et al. 1999), and comparison with new data

 [sup.14]C
lab no. [delta][sup.13]C age BP 1[sigma]

(ii)
OxA-2518 -24.9 3340 80 *
OxA-2646 -23.9 3315 70 *
OxA-2517 -25.6 3380 80 *
OxA-2647 -25.1 3150 70 *

OxA-3187 -22.2 3230 70 *
OxA-3189 -26 3270 70 *
OxA-3225 -23.6 3160 80 *
OxA-3188 -26.5 3200 70 *

lab no. notes

EARLY LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10728
OxA-10729
OxA-10730
OxA-10623 likely outlier, see caption to FIGURE 2
OxA-10642

MID TO MATURE LATE MINOAN IA
Akrotiri, Thera--outer rings of two short-lived wood samples from
 volcanic destruction level
OxA-10312
OxA-10313
OxA-10314 pooled age for 3 ring sample = 3325 [+ or -] 16 BP
 (95% level [chi square] test 2.3<6.0)
OxA-10315
OxA-10316
OxA-10317
OxA-10318
OxA-10319 pooled age for 6 rings of same sample = 3404 [+ or -] 17
 BP (95% level [chi square] test 6.6<9.5)

MATURE TO LATE LATE MINOAN IA--VOLCANIC DESTRUCTION LEVEL ON THERA
Akrotiri, Thera--short-lived samples from Volcanic Destruction Level
 (Friedrich et al. 1990)
K-3228
K-4255
K-5352
K-5353 pooled age = 3356 [+ or -] 32 BP (95% level [chi square]
 test 1.4<7.8)

LATE LATE MINOAN IA
Trianda, Rhodes
OxA-10640
OxA-10641 likely outlier, see caption to FIGURE 2
OxA-10643

LATE/CLOSE OF LATE MINOAN IB
Chania, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan IB
 destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)
(i) new data this study

(i)
OxA-10320
OxA-10321
OxA-10322
OxA-10323

Myrtos-Pyrgos, Crete--short-lived (annual) samples from the Late Minoan
 IB destruction horizon (close of Late Minoan IB)
OxA-10324
OxA-10325
OxA-10326
OxA-10411

(ii) previous data for samples of same description from the same
contexts (Housley et al. 1999), and comparison with new data

 pooled
 age BP [chi square] test 95%
lab no. (i)+(ii) 1[sigma] level (i)+(ii)

(ii)
OxA-2518 3221 32 2.5<3.8
OxA-2646 3274 32 0.4<3.8
OxA-2517 3342 33 0.2<3.8
OxA-2647 3242 32 1.9<3.8

OxA-3187 3265 24 0.3<3.8
OxA-3189 3233 24 0.3<3.8
OxA-3225 3221 24 0.6<3.8
OxA-3188 3162 35 0.4<3.8

* Data include an additional 8 [sup.14]C years error factor for samples
of 1 year or less growth to allow for annual variation in [sup.14]C
ages versus the decadal average employed for calibration analysis
(Stuiver & Braziunas 1998).

Acknowledgements. This work is funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NER/B/S/2000/00300). We thank especially Erik Hallager for collaboration and discussion, and Hallager and Yiannis Tzedakis for supply of samples from the Greek-Swedish excavations at Chania. We thank Brian Matthews for some wood identifications. We thank Bernd Kromer, Jeremy Rutter and Peter Ian Kuniholm for discussion and assistance. Finally we thank the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit staff.

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STURT W. MANNING, CHRISTOPHER BRONK RAMSEY, CHRISTOS DOUMAS, TOULA MARKETOU, GERALD CADOGAN & CHARLOTTE L. PEARSON *

* Manning and Pearson, Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Whiteknights PO Box 227, Reading RG6 6AB, England. S.W.Manning@reading.ac.uk Ramsey, Research Laboratory for Archaeology & the History of Art, University of Oxford, 6 Keble Road, Oxford OX1 303, England. Doumas, Archaeological Society of Athens, Excavations at Akrotiri, Thera, Tholou 10, Athens 105 56, Greece. Marketou, 22nd Ephorate of Prehistoric & Classical Antiquities of Dodekanese, Argyrokastrou Square, Rhodes 851 00, Greece. Cadogan, Old Rectory, Culworth, Banbury OX17 2AT, England.

Received 1 November 2001, accepted 10 December 2001, revised 11 March 2002