The origins of the civilization of Angkor.

HIGHAM, CHARLES ; THOSARAT, RACHANIE

The transition to states in mainland Southeast Asia began during the first centuries AD, and has commonly been ascribed to the adoption of Indian religious and political ideas which arrived on the maritime silk route. Recent research on the Khmer language inscriptions dating from 611 AD has revealed strong local traditions underlying the Indic veneer. In assessing these trends to increased social complexity, however, we have lacked insight into late prehistoric culture.

In order to redress this situation, we investigated the Iron Age communities of the Mun Valley in Northeast Thailand, an area in which relevant sites are densely distributed. Our objective was to excavate a sufficiently large area to illuminate prehistoric culture on the eve of the transition to the state. We focused in particular upon the social organization, the evidence for technological innovation, craft specialization, innovations in the economy, expansions in exchange networks, warfare and the possibility that prehistoric communities were involved in water management.

Following an intensive site survey in the study area, we identified two sites for excavation. Most Iron Age sites comprise large mounds, covering up to about 50 hectares, ringed by what have been interpreted as moats. Noen U-Loke was the principal focus of excavations. An area of 210 sq. m was opened to a depth of 5 m. The sequence in the excavated area covered nearly a millennium from 400-500 BC, the beginning of the Iron Age. We recovered 126 inhumation graves within five mortuary phases together with abundant evidence for local industrial activity, the economy, palaeo-environment and exchange relationships.

The mortuary record changed markedly over time while retaining the established practice of inhumation. Even the earliest graves included iron tools, weapons and ornaments, but a recurrent feature was the proliferation of bronzes. By the fourth mortuary phase, which is dated within the first few centuries AD, burials were disposed in clusters, each containing the remains of men, women, infants and children. There was a marked increase in ritual energy: the skeleton lay within a thick bed of silicified rice, enclosed within clay-lined and lidded graves. Some men and women were very rich, two men wearing three or four elaborate bronze belts, up to 150 bronze bangles, bronze toe and finger rings, glass beads and silver ear coils covered in gold. A woman was found with a necklace of gold and agate beads. It is also intriguing to note that clusters had their own individuality, one having nearly all the carnelian but no pots, another most of the spindle whorls and many pottery vessels. One young man was buried prone with an arrowhead lodged in his spine, and towards the end of the occupation we find a proliferation of iron points which may well indicate more friction.

Bronze casting was undertaken by specialists, the pottery was of the highest quality and some glass beads were probably locally made. Moreover, these Iron Age sites were foci for the production of salt on an industrial scale.

The reconstruction of the environment, based on a series of long and deep cuts through the alleged moats, and the analysis of former drainage patterns, has shown that settlements were located in broad multi-channelled riverine lowlands, and evidence for water management is minimal at best.

Although the programme is now in its analytical stage, results so far enable us to recognize complex Iron Age communities involving concentrated social wealth, specialized production, an increasing population, widespread and growing exchange networks and conflict, variables which may well have contributed to the transition to states.

CHARLES HIGHAM & RACHANE THOSARAT, Higham, Department of Anthropology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand. charles.higham@macintosh.otago.ac.nz Thosarat, Fine Arts Department, Phimai, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand 30110. fad9@loxinfo.co.th