Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: interlaced woven finds from Pavlo I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.

Adovasio, James M. ; Soffer, Olga ; Klima, Bohuslav 等

The later Palaeolithic sites of Moravia, the region of the Czech Republic west of Prague and north of Vienna, continue to provide remarkable new materials. To the art mobilier for which Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov have been celebrated, there has recently been added the technologies of groundstone and ceramics - and now woven materials, interlaced basketry or textiles, again of a kind one expects only from a quite later era.

The Moravian sites of Predmosti Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov have yielded the earliest evidence for European groundstone technology (in the form of pendants and enigmatic, large rings) and for a ceramic technology (employed to fabricate a plethora of animal and female figurines) [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED] (Absolon 1945; Absolon & Klima 1977; Klima 1954; 1957; 1962; 1963; Svoboda 1994; Svoboda et al. 1996; Vandiver et al. 1989). In the following pages, preliminary data are provided on another apparent innovation, the manufacture of basketry or textiles from plant fibres.

The materials examined come from Pavlov I, an apparent base-camp occupied between c. 24,000 and 27,000 b.p. (Svoboda 1994; Svoboda et al. 1996). The site probably does not represent a single occupation, but rather is a palimpsest of residential, probably seasonal, stays at the foot of the Pavlov Hills, located in the Czech Republic, some 35 km south of the present-day city of Brno. The site has a distinctive suite of lithic and bone artefacts assigned to the Pavlov culture, a local variant of the Eastern Gravettian technocomplex (Svoboda 1994; Svoboda et al. 1996).

While it has been known, since Absolon's 1925 discovery of the Dolni Vestonice 'Venus' figurine, that groups occupying this region fashioned and fired clay objects (Absolon 1945), it is only recently that the existence of a fibre-based technology was discovered. Although the presence of human fingerprints and palm prints on fired and unfired clay fragments from Dolni Vestonice I and Pavlov I had been known for some time (Vlcek 1951; 1991 with references), it was during the course of a comparative analysis of ceramic fragments from the site, one of us (OS) encountered fibre impressions which appeared to be interlaced.

Provenance and chronology

The objects discussed were recovered in 1954 from a c. 470 sq. m excavated area in the centre of Pavlov I (Klima 1957; 1958; 1987) [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED]. The 1954 excavation was composed of two horizontal exposures or blocks, one block containing a round dwelling with a central fire hearth and the other block containing two dwellings which were intrusive into older features. Hearths within these dwellings yielded a substantial number of burned limestone cobbles.

Though the exact vertical and horizontal provenience of the fibre impressions recovered in 1954 is not available, all are reported to derive predominantly from ash deposits both in and around the interior hearths and also from outside the dwellings. The cultural level in this portion of the site is c. 60 cm thick and probably represents more than one occupational episode. Unfortunately, these episodes could not be vertically segregated.

Six radiocarbon determinations have been obtained on wood charcoal from the site. They are as follows:

GrA-192 Pavlov I, 25,530 [+ or -] 110 b.p.
1953 excavation, area b

GrN-19539 Pavlov I, 26,650 [+ or -] 230 b.p.
1953 excavation, area b

GrN-1272 Pavlov I, 26,620 [+ or -] 230b.p.
1956 excavation, area b

GrN-1325 Pavlov I, 25,020 [+ or -] 150b.p.
1956 excavation, area b

GrN-4812 Pavlov I, 26,730 [+ or -] 250b.p.
1956 excavation, area b

GrN-20391 Pavlov I, 26,170 [+ or -] 450b.p.
1957 excavation, area a

While the vertical position of the fibre impressions within the cultural zone cannot be specified, nor are there dates for materials from the 1954 excavations, the samples appear to be confidently ascribable to the time-range bracketed by the upper limit of the oldest and the lower limit of the youngest of the available dates - that is, c. 26,980-24,870 b.p.

The finds

Definitions

Four specimens of fired clay from Pavlov I bear negative impressions of what are clearly textile or flexible basketry fragments. The term textile is reserved for fully flexible fabric or cloth, while basketry can denote several distinct kinds of items including semi-rigid containers or baskets proper, matting and bags. Though technically basketry is usually treated as a sub-class of textile, here we regard these items as belonging to distinct - if inter-related - industries, both in terms of process and product. As Driver (1961: 159) points out, all forms of basketry may be treated as an analytical unity because they are manually interlaced without any frame or loom. Following Drooker (1992) and others (Balfet 1952; Mason 1904), basketry also denotes items which are usually not fully pliable - though bags may clearly exhibit the flexibility of woven cloth. In this context, the term textile specifically implies the use of some sort of stationary, hanging or horizontal non-heddle frame or loom in the manufacturing process.

Although most classification systems (e.g. Emery 1966) recognize many variations of textiles as a general class, there are only three major variations of basketry - twining, coiling and plaiting - for the most part mutually exclusive (Adovasio 1970; 1977). Only twining is represented in the Pavlov I collection.

As the difference between twined basketry and twined fabric or cloth is usually determined in actual specimens by the degree of flexibility, the form of the item and the fact that twined textiles are usually made with some variety of hanging or horizontal frame, the distinction made herein between impressions of textiles and basketry is arbitrary.

Analytic procedures and classification

The analytical procedures applied to the Pavlov I impressions follow those specified in Chapman & Adovasio (1977) for negative impressions recovered from open sites. While these procedures normally would involve the production of a positive impression following Drooker (1992: 251-4), this was not possible with the Pavlov I specimens. Instead, the authors, with the assistance of J. Snider, analysed the Pavlov I specimens from high-resolution, scaled photographs of the original items. All measurements were taken with a Fowler MaxCal electronic digital sliding caliper and are presented in the metric system.

The identifiable specimens were assigned to two structural types and one residual category as outlined in Adovasio (1977), Chapman & Adovasio (1977) and Emery (1966).

The Pavlov I assemblage

Type I: Open Simple Twining, Z Twist Weft [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURES 3A AND 3B OMITTED]

Number of specimens: 1.

Type of specimen: wall fragment without selvage.

Type of form represented: semi-flexible bag or mat, or fully flexible fabric, exact configuration unknown.

Technique and comments

Plain twined weaving over single warps. In this specimen warps are tightly spaced, and Z twisted weft rows are spaced at intervals to regularly expose warps [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURES 3A AND 3B OMITTED]. Warps and wefts are both two-ply Z spun S twist (S) cordage. Texture is either semi-flexible or flexible. The specimen is unmended and lacks selvage. The section of fabric preserved in this impression appears unworn. Methods of insertion of new warp and weft elements is unknown. The specimen may be either a portion of a finely woven bag or mat, or a length of fabric of an undeterminable shape. Though it is possible to produce manually (i.e. without a loom of any kind) lengths of fully flexible fabric with as fine a gauge as that evinced by this specimen production would be far simpler on a hanging or horizontal non-heddle frame.

Measurements

Range in diameter of warps: 0.073-0.092 mm

Mean diameter of warps: 0.085 mm

Range and mean warps per cm: 12

Range in diameter of wefts: 0.036-0.037 mm

Mean diameter of wefts: 0.0365 mm

Range and mean wefts per cm: 2

Range and mean gap between weft rows: 0.59 mm

Range and mean twists per cm (warps): 10

Range in angle of twists (warps): 28 [degrees]-29 [degrees]

Mean angle of twists (warps): 28.5 [degrees]

Range and mean twists per cm (weft plies): not applicable

Range and mean angle of twists (weft plies): not applicable

Raw materials: vegetal fibre, genus and species unknown.

Type II: Open Diagonal Twining, S Twist Weft [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURES 4A AND 4B OMITTED]

Number of specimens: 1.

Type of specimen: wall fragment without selvage.

Number of forms represented: 1.

Type of form represented: semi-flexible bag or length of fabric, exact configuration unknown.

Technique and comments

Diagonal (twill) twined weaving over paired warps. Warps are two-ply S spun Z twist (Z) cordage, and individual warp plies are two-ply Z spun S twist (S) cordage. Wefts are also two-ply S spun Z twist (Z) cordage, and are spaced at intervals to regularly expose warps [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED]. The weft rows are S twisted. Texture is either flexible or semi-flexible. The specimen is unmended and lacks selvage. Unlike the Type I specimen, this specimen appears moderately worn. It may represent a portion of a finely woven bag or a flat length of fabric of indeter-minable shape. As with the Type I specimen, this specimen may have been produced on a hanging or horizontal non-heddle frame.

Measurements

Range in diameter of warps: 0-049-0.065 mm

Mean diameter of warps: 0.0566 mm

Range and mean warps per cm: 12

Range in diameter of wefts: 0.031-0.046 mm

Mean diameter of wefts: 0.041 mm

Range and mean wefts per cm: not applicable

Range and mean gap between weft rows: 0.745 mm

Range and mean twists per cm (warps): 12

Range in angle of twists (warps): 27 [degrees]-28 [degrees]

Mean angle of twists (warps): 27.5 [degrees]

Range and mean twists per cm (weft plies): not applicable

Range and mean angle of twists (weft plies): not applicable

Raw materials: Vegetal fibre, genus and species unknown

In addition, we observed the following impressions on two additional pieces.

Possible Twining, Type Unknown

Number of specimens: 2

Type of specimens: wall fragment without selvage(?)

Number of forms represented: 2(?)

Type(s) of forms represented: not applicable

Technique and comments

Both specimens appear to exhibit two to three indistinct parallel impressions which may be warps - as indicated by their general resemblance to the warps noted in Types I and II. No weft rows nor any other details of construction are visible on these specimens.

Measurements

Range in diameter of 'warps': 0.042-0.051 mm

Mean diameter of 'warps': 0-045 mm

(No other measurements taken)

Raw materials: vegatel fibre(?), genus and species unknown

Interpretations

While it is highly probable that the two structural types described above do not represent the entire range of perishable fibre technology known to the weavers of Pavlov I, they do provide direct evidence for the production and/or use of twined textiles or basketry at the site. Further, since the warps and wefts are produced by essentially cordage production techniques, it may also be confidently assumed that both string and rope were in use at Pavlov I. Despite the absence of selvage and other basic construction and finishing attributes, the Pavlov I impressions represent technically well made items; they are scarcely 'primary essays in the craft'. Further, the general regularity and relatively narrow gauge of the elements used in both the Type I and Type II specimens suggest considerable antecedent development not only for these specific techniques but also for the perishable industry or industries at large.

Given the small size and condition of this assemblage, it is quite impossible to specify whether either of the named structural types represents twined bags, mats, or cloth fabrics - or to posit any specific function for these items. If they are portions of bags or mats, they may have served the 'usual' role of these items - that is, as flooring or sitting/sleeping platforms in the case of mats, and as storage/transportation devices in the case of bags. If, on the other hand, they are portions of cloth fabrics, they could represent blankets or items of clothing such as shawls, shirts, skirts, sash fragments, etc.

The presence of textile or basketry impressions in fired clay is not unparalleled in Old or New World archaeological contexts, but the method of emplacement for the Pavlov I impressions is enigmatic. At Pavlov I - as is also the case at Dolni Vestonice I - there are fired-clay fragments showing impressions of sticks and twigs (Soffer & Vandiver 1994; Vandiver et al. 1989). Klima (1955) has also suggested that some of the mammoth bones in at least one of the dwellings at Pavlov I were intentionally 'cemented together' with clay. Considered together, these data appear to indicate the intentional application of wet clay to all sorts of items and for a variety of purposes.

In light of the foregoing, the perishable impressions from Pavlov I could represent the intentional application of clay to the 'outside' of some flexible containers to provide a simple form of mould not unlike that evidenced in some early North American ceramic production (cf. Morris & Burgh 1941: figure 43a-1). They may also represent items that were simply 'walked' into moist floors as a consequence of use. Less likely, but still possible, is intentional use of such items to pack or 'tamp' down prepared clay floors. As unlikely as it may be, they could also be wall hangings applied over and impressed into still wet clay which was 'accidentally' or incidentally fired after the structure was destroyed.

Whatever their form or function, both the Type I and Type II specimens from Pavlov I clearly appear to be made of plant rather than animal fibre, though an exact identification of species is impossible. Pollen analysis indicates a steppe-tundra environment with the presence of both bast-bearing and other plants at the site (Klima 1955; Opavil 1994; Svoboda 1994; Svoboda et al. 1996), any number of which could have been used to provide suitable construction elements. S. Mason and her colleagues have suggested that the fibrous bark of both alder (Alnus sp.) and yew (Taxus sp.) were locally available and, furthermore, that the herbaceous flora probably included milkweed (Asclepias sp.) and nettle (Urtica sp.) (Mason et al. 1994) - all of which have well-documented ethnographic and prehistoric uses as perishable production media.

Pavlov I finds in the global context

The textile/basketry impressions from Pavlov I, dating to about the 27th or 26th millennia b.p., are far and away the oldest indications of fibre-based technology in the world. Though few in number, the Pavlov I specimens provide positive evidence for the production of textiles and/or basketry in at least one part of Europe a minimum of 7000 to 10,000 years earlier than documented anywhere else.

To date, the next-oldest examples of weaving or fibre artefact production in any form include fragments of charred cordage and/or netting from Mezhirich (Adovasio et al. 1993) in Ukraine and Kosoutsy in Moldova, though in neither context are the perishables older than c. 17,000 b.p. Of broadly comparable age are the charred cordage fragments and impressions on clay from Lascaux (Leroi-Gourhan & Allain 1979; Leroi-Gourhan 1982).

Slightly older cordage has recently been reported from Ohalo II on the sea of Galilee, dating to c. 19,000 b.p. (Nadel et al. 1994), though elsewhere in the Near East the use of fibre technology is not well documented before Natufian or early Neolithic contexts. Indeed, with the exception of the Ohalo II materials, none of the recovered perishable items is older than the 9th or 10th millennia (cf. Schick 1988; Adovasio 1975; Bar-Yosef 1985).

Similarly, the oldest evidence of fibre artefact production from Asia, including Late Pleistocene/Upper Palaeolithic and so-called 'Mesolithic' sites in China and Japan, are presently no older than 13,000-12,000 (Hurley 1979; MacNeish pers. comm. 1994).

No basketry, textiles or cordage of relatively comparable age are presently known from Africa or Australia.

In both eastern and western North America, the oldest basketry, textile or cordage materials are assignable to the mid 12th millennium, though very few specimens have been recovered in well-dated contexts. North American sites with perishable fibre artefacts of any subclass or types older than c. 11,000 can literally be counted on one hand.

Stile (1982: 130-41) describes simple plaited basketry fragments from middle and lower Stratum IIa at Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania, although no cordage, netting or other fibre perishables are represented. These specimens, which date from 12,800 [+ or -] 870 to 11,300 [+ or -] 700 b.p., are currently the oldest fibre perishables recovered in the eastern United States (Andrews & Adovasio 1995).

Orr (1974: 47-59) reports both close and open simple twined basketry with Z twist wefts and two-ply S spun Z twist cordage (Z) from the base of Level 4 at Fishbone Cave, Nevada, with bracketing dates of 11,250 [+ or -] 250 and 7830 [+ or -] 350 b.p. for this stratum. Significantly, the 11,250 date was directly asseyed on an open-twined Z twist weft mat fragment, at the moment the oldest directly dated perishable fibre artefact in western North America.

Stratum DI, Sand 1, at Danger Cave, Utah, yielded the oldest cordage and netting from the eastern Great Basin (Jennings 1957: 227-34). The small but informative collection includes single-ply S twist cordage, a length of untwisted fibre and, more significantly, a section of two-ply Z spun S twist (S) lark's head knotted netting. All three specimens date from 11,151 [+ or -] 570-10,270 [+ or -] 650 b.p..

Cressman (1942) reported cordage of the two-ply Z spun S twist (S) and single-ply Z twist varieties from the bottom of Fort Rock Cave, Oregon, along with the Fort Rock Sandal type and simple twined basketry with Z twist wefts. Though the age of the basal deposits at Fort Rock remains controversial, these perishable specimens are at least 11,000 years old (Andrews et al. 1986).

Still more controversial are the incompletely analysed materials from putative Clovis contexts in Pendejo Cave (Adovasio & Hyland 1993; Hyland & Adovasio 1905). This small collection - which includes cordage and knotted netting, none of which has been directly asseyed - may date to 11,900-11,300, making it the oldest perishable assemblage in western North America.

In South America, the production of textiles or basketry is evidenced in early 10th-millennium contexts in the Peruvian highlands (Adovasio & Lynch 1973; Adovasio & Maslowski 1980), while the production of cordage is substantially more ancient. Recent analysis of the diminutive modified plant fibre assemblage from Monte Verde, Chile, indicates that the manufacture of cordage is established by the 14th millennium (Adovasio in press). This material is currently the oldest perishable assemblage known from both South America and the New World.

Perhaps significantly, twining is the earliest basketry or textile-weaving technique known from virtually all of the areas enumerated above, with the possible exception of eastern North America, where platting has a hoary antiquity. This seems to confirm the hypothesis advanced some years ago (Adovasio 1970) that twining technology is at the base of virtually all textile and basketry production - not simply as originally envisioned in North and South America, but apparently throughout the rest of the world.

While it may seem surprising that European Upper Palaeolithic groups were sedentary enough to produce finely woven basketry or fabrics, equally sophisticated weaving is documented for groups with a wide range of mobility such as those from the late Pleistocene/early Holocene arid deserts of the Near East or western North America, the temperate to cold highlands of Peru, or the sub-tropical to continental climates of northern Asia and Japan. While it is now certain that perishable fibre industries were part and parcel of the technological milieu of the first Americans, they also seem to have been a part of the Upper Palaeolithic techno-economic suite for much longer than we have imagined.

Acknowledgements. This paper was edited by D. Pedler (Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute). FIGURES 1 and 2 were drafted by S. Holland (University of Illinois), FIGURES 3b and 4h were drafted by D. Hyland (Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute). The authors also wish to thank P. Vandiver (CAL, Smithsonian Institution) for her very helpful comments. O. Soffer's research in Moravia in 1991, when the discussed impressions were discovered, was funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities Travel to Collections Grant - their support is most gratefully acknowledged.

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