Shell beads from Mandu Mandu Creek rock-shelter, Cape Range peninsula, Western Australia, dated before 30,000 b.p.
Morse, Kate
A site dated well back into the Pleistocene in Western Australia yields modified shells, seen as a further evidence of the attributes of
modern humans from an early Australian context.
Recent reviews (Mellars 1989; Marshack 1990) have highlighted the
continuing debate over the biological and behavioural origins of modern
human populations. Research in Australasia has demonstrated that
anatomically modern humans were present by 30,000 b.p. (Wolpoff et at.
1984; Webb 1989), although the region was first colonized at least
40-50,000 b.p. and possibly much earlier (Pearce & Barbetti 1981;
Groube et al. 1986; Allen et al. 1988; Jones 1989; Roberts et al. 1990).
This paper reports the recent discovery of shell beads, dated c. 32,000
b.p., from an archaeological site on the Cape Range peninsula, Western
Australia. These artefacts are the earliest ornamental material yet
recovered from the Australasian Region and provide important new
evidence for the development of sophisticated behavioural patterns by
early Australian populations.
Background
Cape Range peninsula forms a finger of land, once known as
Madman's Corner, which stretches into the Indian Ocean on the
western extremity of the Australian arid zone. The back-bone of the
peninsula is formed by Cape Range, an extremely rugged and largely
inaccessible limestone range dissected by numerous intermittently
flowing creeks. Its western coast is bordered by Ningaloo Reef, and on
its eastern margin are the shallow and sheltered waters of Exmouth Gulf.
Of major significance to archaeological research in this area is the
proximity of the edge of the continental shelf to the modern shoreline.
At a distance of only 10 km, the western margin of Cape Range peninsula
is the nearest point on the Australian continent to the edge of the
continental shelf. In 1985, excavations in Mandu Mandu Creek
rock-shelter, a small limestone cave in the western foothills of Cape
Range, yielded archaeological evidence of intermittent human occupation
of the coastal margin of Cape Range peninsula, from 25,000 b.p. to at
least 430 b.p., by people exploiting a variety of coastal resources
including fish, crab and at least three species of marine mollusc (Morse
1988). This was the first unequivocal Australian evidence for the
Pleistocene exploitation of marine resources (Jones 1989; Morse 1988).
Two stratigraphic units, distinguished by colour, texture and content
and separated by a marked disconformity, were identified in this
excavation. The upper late Holocene unit contains the great majority of
archaeological material. A basal carbonate radiocarbon determination of
25,200|+ or -~250 b.p. (SUA-2354) and a date of 20,040|+ or -~440 b.p.
|SUA 2614) on baler shell (Melo sp.) bracket the lower unit.
Archaeological material, including stone artefacts, marine and
terrestrial bone and marine shell, while sparse in the Pleistocene unit,
comprised a comparable faunal range to that found in the Holocene unit.
There are no archaeologically sterile layers in the deposit at Mandu
Mandu Creek rock-shelter and sediment analysis suggests that there is a
strong correlation between the intensity of human use and the rate of
sediment accumulation at this site (cf. Hughes & Lampert 1982). The
Pleistocene unit consists of lenses of red to yellowish-red, fine to
very fine quartz-calcarenite sands and coarse silts with abundant
carbonate nodules. All archaeological material in the lower unit is
encrusted in a red carbonate cement and there is no evidence for
post-depositional bioturbation. The disconformity between the two
stratigraphic units is considered to represent a hiatus in occupation,
when use of this rock-shelter ceased as the arid conditions of the last
glacial period intensified, and it was not re-occupied until late
Holocene times. Midden sites on the nearby coast indicate, however, that
people had re-occupied the area by at least 7000 years ago (Kendrick
& Morse 1982; 1990). The 1989 excavation
In 1989 two further 1-m square pits, Squares C1 and E2, were
excavated at Mandu Mandu Creek rock-shelter and a similar stratigraphic
and archaeological sequence to that outlined above was identified
(FIGURE 2; Morse in press a). Baserock in Square C1 is 91 cm below floor
surface, some 10 cm deeper than the original Square C3 excavation. In
Square E2 baserock is 80 cm below the floor surface. As before,
archaeological material including stone artefacts, marine shell and
bone, and terrestrial bone is present throughout the deposit, becoming
increasingly sparse with depth. The stone industry can broadly be
classified as typical of the Australian core tool and scraper tradition
with the addition of typical late phase tools such as adzes and a
significant decrease in flake size in the Holocene layers (cf. White
& O'Connell 1982: 105). To a great extent, the faunal
assemblage reflects the changing proximity of the coast. In the lower
Pleistocene unit, a time when the sea was retreating between 3-10 km
west of the site, faunal material is for the most part sparse and the
marine faunal assemblage is far less diverse than that found in the
Holocene layers. However, in Square C1, in the basal 9 cm of deposit, a
marked abundance of archaeological material including over 75 g of
marine shell, 140 g of bone and some 50 stone artefacts was recovered. A
2.7-g fragment of baler shell collected from just above baserock in the
southwest corner of Square C1 yielded a radiocarbon determination of
30,000|+ or -~850 b.p. (Wk-1576). A 9.1-g baler sample from the
northwest corner at a depth some 6 cm above baserock was determined as
34,200|+ or -~1050 b.p. (Wk-1513). X-ray diffraction analysis
demonstrated that the dated samples consisted of primary aragonite.
However, isotopic analysis indicated that there was a 30% contamination
with ground-water carbon dioxide, leading to the samples appearing to be
between 950 and 1250 years too old (C. Hendy pers. comm.). An
uncalibrated determination of c. 32,000 b.p. is taken as an approximate
age for this occupational horizon.
Nine radiocarbon dates have now been obtained from Mandu Mandu Creek
rock-shelter. All are conventional dates and, with the exception of one
charcoal sample and the TABULAR DATA OMITTED carbonate sample from
Square C3 noted above, all have derived from marine shell. The dated
sequence from this rock-shelter now spans from c. 32,000 b.p. to at
least 430 b.p., although the site appears not to have been occupied
between 20,040 and 5490 years b.p., corresponding with the onset of the
arid conditions of the last glacial period. Radiocarbon dates from two
other nearby rock-shelters now indicate that a human presence in this
area was certainly reestablished by at least 12,000 b.p. and may in fact
have continued throughout the last glacial period (Morse in press a; b).
The modified shells
Twenty-two small cone (Conus sp.) shells and fragments were recovered
from the basal occupational horizon in Square C1. The great majority
(nearly 75%) were derived from residue excavated from the two western
quadrants. With the exception of one shell, the small size of which
presumably precluded its use, all the Conus sp. material appears to have
been deliberately modified as beads. Six of the cones are whole shells
that have had their apex perforated and their internal structure cleanly
broken to form a hollowed-out shell with a round hole in the top. The
diameters of the holes range between 2.5 and 3.7 mm; mean diameter is
3.2 mm. The largest of these predominantly intact shells has a maximum
length of 21.1 mm and a maximum diameter of 12.4 mm. Two are fractured
and have their anterior ends broken. After cleaning they appeared
slightly calcined and grey suggesting they have briefly come in contact
with fire. One other shell is broken in half length-ways.
The two best-preserved cones have a small notch worn into the shell
edge at the posterior end of their aperture. In some species of cone a
notch occurs naturally in this position. However, inspection of these
notches under magnification (400x) showed that they had very abraded
edges. This is consistent with the notch being formed by wear from a
string on which the beads could have been threaded. By virtue of a
shell's weight, a string inserted in the hole in the apex is most
likely to emerge from the shell at the posterior end of the aperture,
thereby eventually causing a notch to form. Growth lines, visible at
high magnification on the shell is surface, appear to have been cut
through by the notches. Comparison of notches on the Conus sp. material
with similarly threaded shell artefacts from north Western Australia,
held in ethnographic collections at the Western Australian Museum, show
analogous wear patterns. The other modified cone shells and fragments
consist of a section of the spire of each shell. Like the shells
described above, the apex of each shell is perforated and a rounded hole
has been formed. The diameter of the hole is generally larger than that
recorded in the intact shells, ranging between 1.3 and 6.5 mm, though
the mean diameter is the same. These shells have been further modified
and have their last whorl removed. Both their posterior and anterior
ends have been well rounded and smoothed. The result is a shell ring
between 2.9 and 9.6 mm long (mean length 6.3 mm) and between 7.2 and
12.7 mm in diameter (mean diameter 10.06 mm). Some of the shell rings
are partially broken; measurements are the maximum that could be taken.
It is suggested that the beads were made by rubbing the weakest part
of the shell, the apex, against an abrasive surface. Once a rough hole
had been worn, the internal structure would then be broken, perhaps
using a piece of bone or stick. The edge of the top hole would be
rounded and the still largely intact shell threaded on a fine string.
The shell rings appear to represent a secondary modification following
breakage of the last whorl, whether accidental or deliberate, during
modification. It is estimated that if assembled, the strand of at least
22 beads would have had a length of 180 mm.
All the shells show evident selection for size and genera. Their worn
and battered appearance suggests they were probably collected as dead
shells in the beach drift where they can often be found in abundance.
Comparison of the archaeological shells with modern and fossil shells
shows some important differences. While the apex of some of the natural
shells is perforated, the resulting hole is irregular and has a very
fine, often jagged edge. In addition, in all specimens examined, the
internal structure of the natural shells is more or less intact.
Species identification of the cones from this site is problematical
as they have very worn and etched surfaces. They are provisionally
identified as Conus dorreensis (G.W. Kendrick pers. comm.), a species
which typically lives in shallow waters on reef platforms, and in sand
under rocks, environments consistent with the predominantly reefed
shoreline of the western coast of the Cape Range peninsula. Cone shells,
with over 300 known species, belong to one of the most diverse shell
families in Australian waters (Wells & Bryce 1985). Though edible,
many are venomous and they are not generally considered to be a dietary
species. In view of the condition and very small size of the cone shells
described here, it is considered most unlikely that they were collected
for human consumption.
Further excavation to baserock of squares immediately adjacent to
Square C1 may yield additional cone shell material. Ochre and fragments
of pearl shell (Pinctada spp.) and scaphopod shell (family Dentaliidae),
materials well documented in Australia as being used to make decorative
objects (Akerman in press), are present in later Pleistocene layers of
this excavation. In addition, three other fragments of cone shell, one
of which may be deliberately modified, were recovered from spits 10 and
11 in Square E2. While no direct date is available from this depth their
estimated age is c. 21,000 years b.p. At this time Mandu Mandu Creek
rock-shelter would have been located some 8-10 km from the shore and,
while equivocal, this evidence may point to a continuing tradition of
site use.
Discussion
The decorative and ceremonial use of ornaments, including shell
beads, was well established in Australia by mid-late Holocene times
(Pretty 1977; Macintosh 1971). While no record has been found describing
the use of cone shells, many other shell species were used in the
manufacture of decorative material (Akerman in press). Pleistocene
evidence, on the other hand, is sparse. The Devil's Lair bone
beads, ranging in age from 12,000 to 19,000 b.p. (Dortch 1984), and the
ochred burial Lake Mungo III (Bowler & Thorne 1976) dated some
30,000 b.p., have provided the best evidence to date for the antiquity
of Aboriginal decorative or ceremonial traditions. The shell beads
described here extend the age of human use of decorative ornaments in
Australia to a time comparable with some of the earliest such evidence
from Europe (Mellars 1989; Soffer 1985; White 1989). It seems, then,
that behavioural patterns commonly thought to be associated with
biologically modern human populations were occurring contemporaneously
in both the southern and northern hemispheres. Acknowledgements. This
research was funded by grants from the Australian Institute of
Aboriginal Studies and the National Estate Program. I would especially
like to thank George Kendrick, Peter Bindon, Sylvia Hallam and Jean-Paul
Raynal, and also K. Akerman, S. Bowdler, C. Bryce, B. Gehlen, C. Hendy,
A. Hogg, M. Lofgren, S. Slack-Smith, M. Smith and L. Strawbridge for
their various help.
References
AKERMAN, K. In press. The use of bone, shell and teeth by Aboriginal
Australians. Paper presented at the Lubbock Lake Landmark International
Symposium, Texas, USA, October 1990.
ALLEN, J., C. GOSDEN, R. JONES & J.P. WHITE. 1988. Pleistocene
dates for human occupation of New Ireland, northern Melanesia, Nature
331: 707-9.
BOWLER, J.M. & A.G. THORNE. 1976. Human remains from Lake Mungo:
discovery and excavation of Lake Mungo III, in R.L. Kirk & A.G.
Thorne (ed.), The origin of the Australians: 127-38. Canberra:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
DORTCH, C.E. 1979. Australia's oldest ornaments, Antiquity 53:
39-43.
GROUBE, L., J. CHAPPELL, J. MUKE & D. PRICE. 1986. A 40,000 year
old ocupation site at Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, Nature 324:
453-5.
JONES, R. 1989. East of Wallace's Line: issues and problems in
the colonization of the Australian continent, in Mellars & Stringer
(1989): 743-82. KENDRICK, G.W. & K. MORSE. 1982. An Aboriginal shell
middens deposit from the Warroora coast, Northwestern Australia,
Australian Archaeology 14: 6-12.
1990. Evidence of recent mangrove decline from an archaeological site
in Western Australia, Australian Journal of Ecology 15: 349-53.
MACINTOSH, N.W.G. 1971 Analysis of an Aboriginal skeleton and a
pierced tooth necklace from Lake Nitchie, Australia, Anthropologie 9:
49-62.
MARSHACK, A. 1990. Early hominid symbol and evolution of the human
capacity, in P. Mellars (ed.), The emergence of modern humans: an
archaeological perspective: 457-98. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.
MELLARS, P. 1989 Technological changes across the Middle-Upper
Palaeolithic transition: economic, social and cognitive perspectives, in
Mellars & Stringer (1989): 338-65.
MELLARS, P. & C. STRINGER (ed.). 1989. The human revolution:
behavioural and biological perspectives on the origin of modern humans.
Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
MORSE, K. 1988. Mandu Mandu Creek rock-shelter: Pleistocene human
coastal occupation of Cape Range Peninsula, Western Australia,
Archaeology in Oceania 23: 81-8.
In press a. New radiocarbon dates from Cape Range Peninsula, Western
Australia: a preliminary report, in M.A. Smith, M. Spriggs & B.
Fankhauser (ed.), Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia,
New Guinea and island Melanesia. Canberra: ANU Press.
In press b. Who can see the sea? Prehistoric human occupation of the
Cape Range peninsula, in W.F. Humphreys (ed.), Biogeography of Cape
Range. Records of the Western Australian Museum, Supplement.
PEARCE, R.H. & M. BARBETTI. 1981. A 38,000 year old
archaeological site at Upper Swan, Western Australia, Archaeology in
Oceania 16: 173-8.
PRETTY, G. 1977. The cultural chronology of the Roonka Flat, in
R.V.S. Wright (ed.), Stone tools as cultural markers: 288-331. Canberra:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
ROBERTS, R.G., R. JONES & M.A. SMITH. 1990. Thermoluminescence
dating of a 50,000 year old human occupation site in northern Australia,
Nature 345: 153-6. SOFFER, O. 1985. The Upper Palaeolithic of the
Central Russian Plain. London: Academic Press.
WEBB, S.G. 1989. The Willandra Lakes hominids. Canberra: Australian
National University, RSPacS.
WELLS, F.E. & C.W. BRYCE. 1985. Sea shells of Western Australia.
Perth: Western Australian Museum.
WHITE, J.P. & J.F. O'CONNELL. 1982. A prehistory of
Australia, New Guinea and Sahul. Sydney: Academic Press.
WHITE, R. 1989. Production complexity and standardization in Early
Aurignacian bead and pendant manufacture: evolutionary implications, in
Mellars & Stringer (1989): 366-90.
WOLPOFF, M.H., WU XINZHI & A.G. THORNE. 1984. Modern Homo sapiens
origins: a general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil
evidence from East Asia, in F.H. Smith & F. Spencer, The origin of
modern humans: a world survey of the fossil evidence: 411-83. New York (NY): Alan R. Liss.