Home away from home? Boarding in Australian schools.
Hodges, Julie ; Sheffield, Jeanie ; Ralph, Alan 等
Abstract
Currently, Australian boarding schools undertake to provide a home
away from home for around 20,000 adolescents. Research documenting the
boarding school experience is scarce, and, with few exceptions, exists
as a less significant aspect of more general research into private
school education. Such school-based research focuses on the positive,
character-building benefits of the boarding experience. However, case
studies of former boarders paint quite a different picture. In order for
boarding schools to best support boarders' development, it is vital
that adults who fulfil a parenting role undertake appropriate training.
This paper draws together available information to present a
comprehensive picture of boarding in Australian schools, with a focus on
the challenges faced by the in loco parentis role of staff. It is
apparent that more skills-based training is vital to better equip staff
in this very important role.
Keywords Boarding schools, non-government schools, boarding houses,
private education, isolated students, residential care
Introduction
The purpose of this review is to assemble a current picture of
boarding in Australian schools, with a specific focus on the challenges
presented by the in loco parentis role of staff in their undertaking to
create a home away from home for the young people in their care
(boarders). Acting in loco parentis, or in the place of a parent, refers
to the legal responsibility of a boarding school to undertake a number
of the responsibilities of a parent. This role is pivotal to
boarders' developmental outcomes but is also a role that presents
many challenges in an increasingly demanding and litigious world
(Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001). Available information and research on
boarding schools is, in the main, of a theoretical, philosophical or a
sociological nature (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 200l; White, 2004), with
very few attempts (Bramston & Patrick, 2007; CSC, 1982; Cree, 2000;
Papworth, Martin, & Ginns, 2011; Papworth, Martin, Ginns, &
Liem, 2012) to quantify important aspects of this environment. There is
a pressing need for data to inform the parenting role of boarding staff
(Bramston & Patrick, 2007; Van Hoof & Holger, 1999), and this
paper represents an initial investigation into the pastoral needs of
adolescents who live in boarding school environments and the staff
training required to respond to these needs. Information for the present
review was gathered by searching catalogues and both education (ERIC)
and psychology (psychinfo) databases, using the search words
'boarding', 'boarding schools', 'residential
schools', 'private schools', 'private
education', 'isolated students' and 'boarders'.
Boarding schools are regulated communities designed for the
education and development of residential students (Cree, 2000; White,
2004). These institutions seem to hold a degree of fascination,
particularly for those who have not had the 'privilege' of
sharing this unique experience, and graduates are typically portrayed in
promotional material as self-reliant young people well equipped to deal
with the complexities of life beyond the school gates (Boarding Schools
Association [BSA], 2007; Gerrard, 2001; Independent Schools Council
Australia [ISCA], 2008). Famous Australian alumni of elite boarding
schools include political leaders such as Robert Menzies, as well as
business giants, Kerry Packer and Rupert Murdoch. While works of fiction
paint a whimsical rather than a realistic picture of the life of a
boarder, they nevertheless constitute a popular representation of this
environment and its inhabitants. The few authors who have investigated
Australian boarding schools (see Table 1) have commented on the scarcity
of relevant boarding-school research, both in Australia and overseas,
and have also noted that what is available is often dated and exists as
a less significant aspect of more general research into private
education. The desire to safeguard a school's public standing and
to protect its residents appears to have resulted in a closed-door
attitude to inquiries (Cree, 2000; Poynting & Donaldson, 2005),
resulting in what might be considered a biased perspective of the
boarding school experience.
Boarding in Australia--how does it compare?
Sociological studies of Australian boarding schools (Cree, 2000;
White, 2004) have clearly differentiated these institutions from their
British counterparts. While there is an assumption that Australian
boarding schools are a colonial replication of those in the United
Kingdom (UK), the dissimilarity of Australian boarding schools to their
corresponding institutions, not only in the UK, but also in the United
States (US), Europe and South Africa, has been highlighted (Cree, 2000;
White, 2004). Overseas boarding schools cater primarily for boarding
students rather than day students (Wakeford, 1969; Weinberg, 1967), such
that, for an overseas school to be regarded as a boarding school,
between 50% (Karlton, 1966) and 75% (Weinberg, 1967) of its enrolled
students need to be boarders. Only 8 of a total of approximately 154
Australian boarding schools (Independent Schools Council Australia,
2010) met this definition (Cree, 2000; White, 2004). Australian boarding
schools are more likely to be independent day schools with attached
boarding houses, with only a small percentage of students defined as
boarders (Cree, 2000; White, 2004). This renders research conducted on
overseas boarding schools of limited relevance to the Australian
context.
Australian research--what we know
Research on Australian boarding schools is often a sub-focus of
research into private education and data are often only accessible as
part of larger studies of non-government schools (ABS, 2008; ABS, 2005).
The exception is the Commonwealth Schools Commission (CSC, 1982) Study
on Living Away From Home Facilities for Isolated Children; the only
detailed quantitative study on Australian boarding that includes
information from all states and territories. This study included a total
of 26,588 boarders, a response rate of 95% (total of 28,133 boarders).
The CSC study was commissioned due to an absence of national data for
decision-making and, albeit dated, provides a benchmark for the current
state of boarding in Australia. The paucity of current research in
Australian boarding schools, particularly quantitative research,
necessitated that data collection for the present paper be derived from
a number of sources.
Boarding numbers 1982-2009
It is difficult to determine exactly how many boarders currently
reside in Australian schools. Boarding school pupils have been excluded
from the scope of the Australian Bureau of Statistics Schools Education
and Work Study (SEW) since 2005; however, in May 2009, the ABS Labour
Force Study (LFS) yielded an estimate of 19,200 boarding school pupils
aged 15 years and over. Previous estimates of boarding numbers have
included boarders younger than 15 years, rendering this recent figure an
underestimate. The Independent Schools Council Australia (ISCA, 2008,
2010) recorded an increase in numbers of boarders between 2007 (16, 926)
and 2009 (17, 097). These figures derive from 154 of the ISCA's
1022-member schools and, based on the comparison with 20,899 boarders
estimated by the ABS (2008) and ABS LFS figures, also appear to
underestimate current boarding numbers. Recent Australian data do not
provide a detailed breakdown as was available in the CSC study (1982)
and the ABS (2008).
Table 2 displays more detailed information on boarders attending
non-government boarding schools between 1982 and 2009. These data were
derived from four separate sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics
([ABS], 2005), ABS (2008), The Commonwealth Schools Commission (CSC,
1982) and the Independent Schools Council Australia (ISCA, 2008, 2009,
2010). The present review is focused only on non-government boarding
schools, and the data (see Table 2) reveal noteworthy trends. Despite an
overall decrease in non-government boarding numbers from 28,133 in 1982
(CSC, 1982) to 20,899 in 2007 (ABS, 2008), Queensland and New South
Wales continue to support the country's largest boarding
populations. The overall percentage of boarders who were male declined
from 60% in 1982 to a relatively even split between males and females in
2007. Historical research has found the rural economy to be a primary
influence on boarding numbers (CSC, 1982; Cree, 2000), and this remains
a significant factor today (ISCA, 2008). Other factors that have
influenced boarder numbers, albeit to a lesser extent, are increases in
resource provision and support in local schools; improvements in
technology, resulting in the improved accessibility and quality of
distance education and upgraded roads and transport that have made daily
travel to local schools a more viable option (ISCA, 2008).
Reasons for boarding
Empirical research on reasons for boarding is scarce; the exception
is a survey of 3100 families from 68 boarding schools conducted by the
Independent Schools Council of Australia (2008). Based on this snapshot,
which represents a response rate of 51%, the current profile of
Australian boarding school students is a diverse group of young people
from a range of backgrounds and countries (ISCA, 2008). Currently,
boarders come from cities, regional and remote areas and may board
because their parents are employed overseas, or may board on a weekly
basis in order to cope with their own sporting and academic commitments
or as a way of coping with changed family circumstances (ISCA, 2008).
Fifty-five percent of families surveyed indicated that there was little
choice but to board their children, (ISCA, 2008). Parents from rural
communities noted that while they would rather not send their children
away to school, the decision was necessary in order to access a
high-quality education important for their children's future
success (Bramston & Patrick, 2007; ISCA, 2008). Mason's (1997)
Australian study on the transition to boarding school also found that
parents sought the increased options and opportunities afforded by
boarding but were also concerned about the additional influences on
their children and the decreased ability to keep an eye on their
progress. Most parents who responded to the Independent Schooling in
Australia 2006-2008 survey (ISCA, 2008) identified that being a boarder
led to becoming a well-rounded, well-balanced person who was
independent, self-reliant, tolerant and compassionate, with 92%
indicating that they would choose boarding if they had to make the
decision again. However, this very positive appraisal of boarding school
graduates might also represent a rationalisation by parents (Duffell,
2006; Poynting & Donaldson, 2005; Schaverien, 2004).
This information, while limited in scope, provides boarder
demographics not notably different from those published in the more
comprehensive CSC (1982) study. Consistent themes have emerged from
research on recent and historical reasons for boarding, including
boarders' perceptions of the benefits of boarding (Bramston &
Patrick, 2007; CSC, 1982; ISCA, 2008; White, 2004). These include
geographical isolation, specialised courses, parents' employment,
family disruption, overseas students and character building. All are
worthy of further exploration.
Geographical isolation and access to specialised courses
The major reason cited by CSC (1982) for students to board was
geographic isolation. The CSC study noted that of geographically
isolated parents who chose to send their adolescents to boarding
schools, 19.5% cited access to specialist courses, staff and resources
as a reason. Today, many rural students still do not have reasonable
daily access to a school that can provide a variety of senior courses;
indeed, many high schools in country areas can only offer specialised
courses through distance education (Bramston & Patrick, 2007;
McGibbon, 2011). Recent research suggests that the decision to send
children to boarding schools is still motivated by a desire to access
courses that are prerequisites to tertiary education (Bramston &
Patrick, 2007; Fisher, Frazer, & Murray, 1984; ISCA, 2008; Mason,
1997; McGibbon, 2011; Stevens, 1995).
Parents' employment
The globalisation of society has resulted in greater mobility of
the work force in general; this, along with the continuing mobility of
certain professions (e.g. armed forces), means that boarding is a
feasible alternative for such families (Cree, 2000). When parents'
employment means that they spend periods of time away from the family
home, or that they must live interstate or overseas, rather than cause
disruption to their child's education, boarding school is often a
practical choice (McGibbon, 2011). This is particularly so if the young
person is completing their senior schooling or the adolescent does not
manage change well.
Disrupted family circumstances
Historically, relatively few students (9.9%) cited disrupted family
circumstances as a reason for boarding (CSC, 1982). However, in more
recent times divorce, separation and parental re-marriage are all
reasons for choosing boarding as a substitute family (Anderson, 2005;
Cree, 2000). While for many young people boarding is a carefully
considered decision, lack of stability at home and exposure to traumatic
and potentially damaging experiences motivated some families to seek a
place in a well-ordered and secure environment (Anderson, 2005; Gerrard,
2001). The pressures of parenting may be enough to motivate parents to
remove children from the confusion of a chaotic home and send them to a
safe, controlled environment, where professionals can do the job instead
(Cree, 2000; Gerrard, 2001; Hawkes, 2001). The social support, security
and group standards of the boarding community may also be important
during times of ill health or when families experience relationship
breakdowns (Hawkes, 2001).
Overseas students
Most Australian boarding schools cater for some students from
Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong (Cree, 2000). However, rather than the
boarding system itself, access to the Australian tertiary education
system, perceived as a cheaper alternative to university courses in the
United Kingdom or the United States, is the proposed attraction for
boarders (Cree, 2000; Han, Jamieson, & Young, 2000). ISCA (2010)
data indicate that of the 483,330 students attending independent
schools, 10,124 are from overseas. However, current data are unavailable
for the proportion of overseas students who actually reside in
Australian boarding schools.
Structure and character-building
Parents perceived boarding schools as desirable for building
character and developing self-reliance (BSA, 2007; CSC, 1982; ISCA,
2008). In support of this perspective, students' responses in
White's (2004) sociological study of an Australian co-educational
boarding school also maintain a character-building perspective. Such
self-reliance is promoted as one of the benefits of being a boarder but
has also been interpreted as ruptured attachment or a boarder's
inability to rely on anyone but themselves (Duffell, 2006; Gerrard,
2001; Schaverien, 2004, 2011).
Options for boarding
Boarding schools offer a structured environment with controlled
periods of private study, the constant presence and assistance of
teachers and specialised staff, as well as use of the school's
facilities including libraries and computers outside school hours. This
may be particularly important for those students who are heavily
involved in academic commitments and extra-curricular commitments,
including sport, music, debating and drama (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes,
2001; ISCA, 2008). While five-day (weekly) boarding numbers were
included in the 1982 CSC study, only 3.9% of boys and 7.0% of girls who
lived relatively close to school boarded. However, in more recent times,
boarding has become an attractive option for families who live in close
proximity to the school (Hawkes, 2001; McGibbon, 2011). Two boarder
categories not included in the CSC study but incorporated in more recent
boarding literature (Hawkes, 2001) are 'occasional' and
'day boarders'. Occasional boarders are those who generally do
not board but may require accommodation for short periods of time, for
example, when academic and extracurricular demands might be particularly
high or during family crises. Day boarders are those who, perhaps due to
parental commitments, use the boarding facilities during the day and
early evening and then return home to sleep. Demand for these options is
increasing (Hawkes, 2001), as is evidenced by the current marketing of
prominent Australian boarding schools that note day boarding to be
'the best of both worlds' (Geelong Grammar School, 2011; The
King's School, 2011; The Southport School, 2011). Anderson (2005)
concurs and in support notes that the number of schools that currently
cater for only full (versus weekly) boarding is declining. Reasons
mentioned for weekly boarding included the additional academic support
offered by boarding staff and extra time available, which otherwise
would have been spent commuting.
The aforementioned reasons for boarding highlight the importance of
the in loco parentis role of boarding school staff. It should be noted
that the available information generally represents parents'
opinions while the boarders' perspectives on their own experiences
are rarely represented.
Boarders' perspectives
The literature on boarding presents a somewhat polarised view of
the boarding experience, from a very positive, character-building
perspective (BSA, 2007; Hawkes, 2001; ISCA, 2008) to one of socially
condoned child abuse (Duffell, 2000, 2006; Poynting & Donaldson,
2005; Schaverien, 2004, 2011). Key themes that have emerged from
boarders' perspectives (Bramston & Patrick, 2007; Gerrard,
200l; White, 2004) include: the positive impact of boarding school on a
student's ability to 'get ahead';
'independence' from the primary social system of the home;
tolerance of others and individuality, empowerment and opportunity.
However, case studies of former male boarders paint a very different
picture of the traumatised child who, while outwardly successful,
struggled to reconcile the sacrifices made for him to attend the
'best schools', with his own experience of emotional
deprivation, feeling abandoned and even being bullied or possibly abused
(Duffell, 2006; Schaverien, 2004, 2011). This perspective is consistent
with historical, biographical and anecdotal accounts of the boarding
experience and raises questions about supervision in the boarding
environment (Duffell, 2000; Lambert, 1968). Responsibility for the care
of students 24 hours a day is a heavy responsibility and increased
scrutiny and retrospective accounts of boarders' experiences
(Duffell, 2000; Lambert, 1968; Poynting & Donaldson, 2005;
Schaverien, 2011) have highlighted the legal risk and duty of care in
boarding schools (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001).
Changing responsibilities of Australian boarding schools
Boarding schools are busy and complex places, required by the
courts to minimise risk and prevent reasonably foreseeable harm
(Anderson, 2005; Boyd, 2000). The law is imposing increasingly higher
standards of care on boarding institutions, which must demonstrate, to
the satisfaction of the courts, appropriate handling of situations
involving risk (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001). Boarding schools are also
bound by child protection legislation to safeguard children from harm
(Anderson, 2005: Boyd, 2000; Hawkes, 2001) and to prevent physical,
emotional or psychological abuse (Hawkes, 2001). To this end, staff
members who come into unsupervised contact with boarders are obliged to
have criminal background clearance (Anderson, 2005). The risk of
bullying is a constant challenge in a boarding environment, with harsh
tales of overt bullying part of boarding's historical inheritance
(Duffell, 2000; Lambert, 1968; Poynting & Donaldson, 2005). While it
is imperative that the day-to-day running of a boarding school is
governed by clear policies and guidelines and informed by relevant laws,
this can also be counterproductive to cultivating an environment that is
nurturing, supportive, as well as safe and transparent (Anderson, 2005;
Holgate, 2007; White, 2004). This conundrum presents a significant
challenge for boarding staff who must walk the boundaries between the
legal and parental responsibilities.
Staff roles and responsibilities
Boarding staff are not only facilitators and guarantors of security
(Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001), but just as importantly, they are in
loco parentis models for young people. The literature is somewhat silent
on the demographics of staff in boarding schools, however, given the
diverse backgrounds of boarders, heterogeneity of life experiences and
age is an advantage (Anderson, 2005). This is consistent with
observations of many boarding establishments that yield a picture of
staff across a continuum on age, experience and formal qualifications.
The variety of experiences that staff bring to the boarding environment
is important, but so is their ability to function as a team that is
consistent and fair, and acts in the best interests of the young people
in their care (Anderson, 2005; Cree, 2000; Hawkes, 2001; Holgate, 2007).
Boarding schools generally employ teachers as part of their boarding
staff. However, the number of teachers employed and their designated
roles differ according to the school's organisational structure.
There are ample descriptions of the skills, qualities and knowledge that
all staff should possess, including personal qualities such as kindness,
empathy and respect, emotional regulation, communication and knowledge
of first aid, crisis management and legal issues (Anderson, 2005;
Hawkes, 2001, 2010; Turner, 2008). This mixture of skills and personal
qualities required by staff who assume this important role would appear
to require extensive preparation and training.
Regardless of the specific roles assumed by staff members, each
person has the vital responsibility for the nurture and welfare of the
boarders (Hawkes, 2001; Holgate, 2007). This is a difficult assignment
for young boarding staff members who are, in some cases, not very far
removed from being students in such establishments. Staff have an
obligation to model the behaviours, values, skills and attitudes
(Hawkes, 2008) young people require in order to lead meaningful lives
and become productive members of society (Peterson, 1996; Sanders,
2004). The boarding environment, like the family environment, is an
ideal setting for promoting the development of young people by teaching
a range of skills including practical skills such as ironing a shirt,
cooking and mending, to skills that focus on social and emotional
competence such as communicating, controlling emotions and impulses and
handling responsibilities (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001; Holgate, 2007;
White, 2004).
Staff and student interactions in the boarding environment are an
important part of the young person's social and emotional
development (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001; Holgate, 2007; Sanders,
2004). However, members of a boarding community occupy challenging
boundaries between the need to develop empathetic relationships and the
need to maintain an appropriate 'distance" befitting the power
differential between students and teachers (Anderson, 2005: Hawkes,
2001; White, 2004). While the ideal age and qualifications of potential
staff are not prescribed, numbers of staff required are usually
expressed as a staffing ratio and included in the school's legal
documents, with ratios of 1 staff to 15 or more young people being
common in a boarding environment (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001). This
proposed ratio (Anderson, 2005) presents a significant challenge for
staff who assume a parental role for boarders (Peterson, 1996; Sanders,
2004).
Staff training
In addition to their parenting role, the need for knowledge of
occupational health and safety requirements, physical and mental health,
first aid and child protection legislation make training and continuing
professional development essential for boarding staff (Anderson, 2005;
Hawkes, 2001). Duty of Care- A Certificate Course in Residential Care
(Hawkes, 2001, 2010), the Australian Boarding Schools Association's
(ABSA) base-level training for all boarding staff, is promoted as the
gold standard in staff training and is intended to contribute basic
knowledge and skills for staff to perform their boarding duties (Hawkes,
2001, 2010). This course addresses topics such as: the philosophy of
residential care; meeting boarders' pastoral needs; occupational
health and safety and emergency procedures based around written tasks
that require staff to reflect on their own practice (Hawkes, 2001,2010).
In January 2013, 382 of the estimated 1500 boarding staff across all
Australian states and territories had completed this course (Australian
Boarding Schools Association [ABSA], personal communication, June 6,
2011).
An Associate Degree in Social Science (Residential Care) which was
offered as a part-time option (2-4 years) through the Australian
Catholic University (ACU) has more recently been discontinued. While
staff training is available, it is currently not compulsory for
employment in boarding schools.
Do boarding schools provide a home away from home?
Generally a young person's social systems are divided into a
primary personal system, represented by the home or family, and a
secondary personal system, the school or university (White, 2004).
Through analysis of boarders' memoirs, White (2004) found that
boarders formed not one but two kinds of primary bonds, one with their
family and the other with their boarding house, and that boarders'
personal values were drawn from both the family and from the boarding
house. This research provides significant support for the importance of
the parenting role of boarding staff. There is also considerable
theoretical support for the primary nature of the boarding house and its
staff in the social, emotional and intellectual development of boarders
(Anderson, 2005; Cree, 2000; Hawkes, 2001). Boarding staff, boarders and
their parents all recognise that boarding institutions need to provide a
home away from home (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001; Holgate, 2007; ISCA,
2008). The success of the boarding school depends on its capacity to
fulfill this role (Anderson, 2005; Hawkes, 2001, 2008; Holgate, 2007;
ISCA, 2008). There is no denying that for students who make boarding
schools their home for more than 38 of 52 weeks each year, boarding
staff acting in loco parentis must accept the vital responsibility of
the nurture and welfare of the boarders.
The future of boarding
Due to the vast size of Australia, there will be an ongoing demand
for places in boarding schools. However, the boarding schools that will
endure are those that offer warmth, security and a strong sense of
community and can cater for the physical, social, emotional, spiritual
and academic needs of the adolescent (Hawkes, 2001; ISCA, 2008). Many
parents indicated that boarding schools provided some sanctuary from
outside influences and as such would increase in popularity (ISCA,
2008). However, what is not clear is the way forward to practical,
empirically supported training that will empower staff to fulfil their
brief to provide a safe, secure, positive learning environment where
adolescents can develop not only in a physical and academic capacity but
just as importantly, socially, emotionally and spiritually.
Conclusions and implications
As most boarding research is of a theoretical rather than empirical
nature (Anderson, 2005; Bramston & Patrick, 2007; CSC, 1982; Cree,
2000; Hawkes, 2001; White, 2004), there is a pressing need for data to
inform the in loco parentis role of staff in boarding schools (Bramston
& Patrick, 2007; Van Hoof & Holger, 1999). The purpose of the
current review was to draw together the available literature and to
present a comprehensive picture of the Australian boarding situation
with a specific focus on the challenges of the role of boarding school
staff and their undertaking to create a home away from home for
boarders. It is apparent that, while boarding numbers fluctuate,
boarding schools are an important and, it appears, an enduring feature
of Australia's schooling landscape. It is also abundantly clear
that the expectations of boarding schools are far in excess of the
provision of a safe, secure environment, but extend to what are
generally thought of as parental responsibilities; that is, the social,
emotional and spiritual development of each child. Boarding staff vary
greatly in age and level of experience, yet all have the responsibility
for the nurture and welfare of the young people in their care. The
implications of these expectations are that all boarding staff require a
comprehensive range of skills, and training must not be limited to
information or knowledge but also involve skill development.
In drawing together available information, this paper has exposed
some shortcomings, the most important of which is that staff performing
a parenting role in boarding schools do not have access to adequate
skills-based training to support the developmental outcomes of the young
people for whom boarding schools are a home away from home.
Evidence-based parenting programs for adolescents are available and may
represent a potential solution for the abovementioned problem.
Modifications of existing parenting programs for adolescents may well
provide a workable solution for improving the competence, confidence and
self-efficacy of boarding staff in working with the young people in
their care.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in
the public, commercial, or not-for--profit sectors.
Declaration of conflicting interests
None declared.
DOI: 10.1177/0004944112472789
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Julie Hodges
Post Doctoral Research Fellow, School of Psychology, University of
Queensland, Australia
Jeanie Sheffield
Lecturer, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Australia
Alan Ralph
Head of Training, Triple P International, Australia
Corresponding author:
Julie Hodges, Parenting and Family Support Centre, School of
Psychology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
Email: juliehod@psy.uq.edu.au
Table 1. Australian research on boarding schools.
Author(s) Topic
Papworth, Martin, Measurement of academic outcomes, non-academic
and Ginns (2011) outcomes, background characteristics and
personality in day students and boarders.
Martin, Ginns, and The effects of boarding school on students'
Papworth (2009) academic and non-academic outcomes.
Bramston and Rural adolescents experiencing an urban
Patrick (2007) transition. The aim was to determine whether
rural adolescents experienced distress when
making the transition to an urban boarding
school.
Anderson (2005) A model for good practice in residential and
boarding education for adolescents.
White (2004) The attitudes of Anglo-Australian and overseas
students in an Australian co-educational
boarding school from their own memoirs.
Schaverien (2004) An exploration of the psychological consequences
of living away from home from a psychodynamic
perspective.
Hawkes (2001) A course designed for completion by any personnel
employed in the boarding environment.
Cree (2000) Identification of distinctive aspects of
boarding schools in Victoria, Australia.
Mason (1997) The emotional transition of twelve-yea- olds
from their rural Australian homes to
boarding school.
Cookson and The role of elite boarding schools in
Persell (1986) maintaining upper class cohesion in the
United States
Fisher, Frazer, A diary-style analysis of the problems and
and Murray (1984) worries of boarding school pupils as they make
the transition from home to boarding school
CSC (1982) A detailed examination of living away from home
facilities for isolated children in Australia.
Author(s) Summary
Papworth, Martin, Preliminary findings indicate that there were no
and Ginns (2011) significant differences between boarders and day
students on 16 of 19 academic and non-academic
variables. The authors note that this
demonstrates educational parity and equity
between day and boarding students. On the
remaining variables, boarders demonstrated
significantly more positive outcomes on purpose
in life and relationships with parents; however,
the data indicated that boarders worried more
about failing.
Martin, Ginns, and The expressed aims were to assist policy,
Papworth (2009) pedagogy and the direction of pastoral care and
to position the Australian Boarding School
Association as a leading researcher in boarding
education.
Bramston and The aim was to determine whether rural
Patrick (2007) adolescents experienced distress when making the
transition to an urban boarding school.
Adolescents (mean age 14.6 years) living in rural
Queensland completed questionnaires to determine
stress levels experienced by those who made the
transition to boarding school. It was found that
rural adolescents who leave to board in the city
managed the transition well and also regarded it
as having a number of advantages. Boarders coped
by talking to others, making an effort to get to
know others and getting involved with organised
activities. Boarders who made the transition
cited a better education and access to greater
opportunities and more contacts as advantages of
the move. Focus group feedback suggested that
being 'buddied' with someone older and having
more contact with parents assisted with
transition.
Anderson (2005) I identified key elements of good management and
practice common to all residential child care
settings including boarding schools. The main
components of a proposed model are the
environment; the legal framework, developmental
issues and time-related issues.
White (2004) A sociological analysis of the aspirations and
attitudes of a group of 45 students at a
co-educational boarding school in Victoria. It
was found that relationships among students and
staff were personal and informal and involved
the whole personality. The boarding house was
found to be the primary personal system and this
system co-existed with the family. Analyses
revealed that students believed that boarding
school was significant in fostering independence
and an attitudinal shift towards embracing
multi-culturalism.
Schaverien (2004) Questions the notion that the socially condoned
and unquestioned practice of sending children to
boarding school is good for them, or 'the making
of them'. This author explores the psychological
impact (from a psychoanalytic perspective) of
boarding schools, noting that while boarding
schools may have improved in present times,
bullying and sexual abuse still continue in 'the
best of schools'.
Hawkes (2001) Duty of Care is a base-level course, designed by
the Australian Residential Schools Association
(TARSA), which has been designed to be completed
by residential boarding staff including boarding
supervisors, matrons, tutors, house-parents and
teachers. The author notes that the course is
designed to be practical rather than academic and
is reportedly structured to contribute to the
basic knowledge and skills necessary to perform
boarding duties. The course is divided into II
units including such diverse topics as philosophy
through to bullying, child development,
discipline and guiding students in play, each of
which, it is proposed, will take between one and
four hours to complete.
Cree (2000) Reports a study of boarding schools in Victoria,
Australia. Quantitative data were used to provide
an overall view of boarding education in the
State of Victoria. Qualitative data were used to
elicit boarders' attitudes to family, peers and
their teachers. The author notes that the
Australian boarding school is unique and separate
from its British counterpart on which it is
thought to be modelled. He also comments on the
paucity of research on boarding in this country
and the difficulties accessing boarding schools.
Mason (1997) Found that self-confidence, self-esteem and the
ability to make friends contributed to an easier
transition to the boarding environment. Factors
emphasised as important in the transition were
a high quality of care; the facilitation of
close staff/student relationships; opportunities
to meet others and effective communication.
Cookson and Reports questionnaire data, open-ended essays,
Persell (1986) academic outcomes and interviews from 2475
freshmen and senior students at 20 selected
schools. The authors note that the 'prep' school
experience facilitates class cohesion and that
surviving the experience creates in the graduates
feelings of legitimacy of power and position.
Fisher, Frazer, Examined the characteristics of problems and
and Murray (1984) worries reported by 50 male and female students
aged 11-16 years experiencing the impact of a new
boarding school environment. Predominant concerns
of students were related to school routines,
school work (58%) and homework (34%), with only
16% reporting homesickness. No demographic
factors were found to influence levels of
homesickness.
CSC (1982) Report by a working party that examined the
living away-from-home facilities of 188 boarding
schools throughout Australia. It was found that
standards of accommodation varied among and
within states, with many reporting overcrowding.
Boarding schools were found to provide for the
accommodation needs of the majority of isolated
students who live away from home to complete
their schooling. It was reported that some
parents see boarding schools as providing
opportunities for learning, challenge,
heightened aspirations, spiritual guidance and
additional opportunities not available in the
local area. The study also notes the difficulty
of attracting and retaining appropriate
supervisory staff.
Table 2. Fulltime boarding students at nongovernment schools
by state.
Year NSW VIC QLD SA WA
1982 7860 3986 8132 2410 3512
1996 7524 3030 8497 3201 1182
1997 7343 3049 8706 1191 3142
1998 6946 2893 8066 1151 3029
1999 6962 2892 7648 1081 2907
2000 6545 2939 7654 1077 2801
2001 6538 2966 7306 1105 2716
2002 6401 3021 6986 1133 2801
2003 6506 3118 6969 1188 2914
2004 6293 3059 6673 1197 2911
2005 6218 3016 6444 1171 2820
2006 6226 3022 6364 1169 2744
2007 6241 3027 6345 1129 2741
2008
2009
Year TAS NT ACT Total
1982 373 46 296 26,588
1996 305 844 225 24,808
1997 322 852 196 24,801
1998 303 852 191 23,431
1999 261 874 177 22,802
2000 245 857 178 22,296
2001 250 817 186 21,884
2002 255 872 185 21,654
2003 268 907 182 21,952
2004 262 873 169 21,437
2005 271 943 166 21,049
2006 281 953 176 20,935
2007 285 971 160 20,899
2008 * 17,181
2009 * 17,097
Sources: CSC (1982); ABS (2009; and ISCA (2009, 2010).
* From 2008 onwards, ISCA provides the only available data;
this probably represents an underestimate of total Australian
boarding numbers.
