The nature of connections: young fathers and their children.

Saleh, Mahasin F. ; Buzi, Ruth S. ; Weinman, Maxine L. 等

INTRODUCTION

The proportion of single-mother families grew from 12% in 1970, to 26% in 2003 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004). An increasing amount of research has shown that lack of paternal involvement can increase the likelihood of poverty, crime, school problems, and cycles of repeat pregnancy (Argys, Peters, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998; Lerman & Sorenson, 2000; Rhein et al., 1997). The negative impact of father absence upon children has brought father involvement to the forefront in social policy and research.

The roles and levels of involvement of middle-class fathers in the family have expanded since the 1970s. Fathers are no longer seen only as breadwinners, but may take on other roles as caretakers and nurturers (Cabrera, Tamis-Lemonda, Bradley, Hofferet, & Lamb, 2000; Pleck, 1997; Pleck & Pleck, 1997; Summers et al., 1999). A variety of models of father involvement have emerged in the literature. Perhaps the most widely known framework of paternal involvement is Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, and Levine's (1985, 1987) model. This model proposes three dimensions of adult father involvement: Interaction, availability, and responsibility. Interaction is defined as one-on-one engagement with the child. This could include feeding the child, playing with the child or other caretaking activities. It does not include merely being in the same house as the child. Availability is a father's presence with the child which provides opportunities for other types of interactions. This dimension does not require face-to-face interaction and an example includes a father cooking while a child plays at his feet or is in the same room. Responsibility is defined as arranging for resources and meeting the needs of the child. Ensuring that the child has clothes to wear, and that the child visits the pediatrician when she is sick are examples of responsibility. It is important to note that the authors do not define responsibility as a breadwinner/provider role, rather they characterize it as responsibility for everyday caretaking.

Paternal involvement of middle-class adult fathers has been in the forefront; much less is known about paternal involvement among low-income fathers (Summers et al., 1999) or young fathers (Johnson, 2001; Miller, 1994). Few studies among low-income fathers indicated that these fathers still tend to view the provider role as their primary duty. For example, some low-income fathers, who are unable to provide for their families due to poverty or job loss, seem to have negative or decreased interactions with their children (Harold-Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993). Among non-resident fathers, payment of child support is considered the most important aspect of paternal involvement (Argys et al., 1998; Green, Hall, Le Menestrel, & Moore, 1998).

Studies on young fathers indicate that it is common for them to experience multiple barriers to paternal involvement. These include lack of maturity, lack of economic support, unemployment, and low educational attainment (Dallas & Chen, 1998; Stouthamer-Loeber, & Wei, 1998). Young fathers also experience resistance from maternal and paternal grandparents, as well as from the mothers (Rhein et al., 1997). Therefore, providing economic support to their children becomes a monumental challenge for young fathers. Despite the barriers these fathers face, it has been found that many desire to be involved with their children (Barret & Robinson, 1985; Glikman, 2004).

Since young fathers deal with complex challenges and multiple barriers, programs are now designed to help them become more involved in the lives of their children (Office of Population Affairs of Family Planning, 2000). In order to successfully accomplish this objective, program staff has to become familiar with the nature of young fathers' involvement with their children. Given the developmental differences between adulthood and adolescence, it is likely that the configuration of father involvement varies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the nature of young fathers' involvement with their children upon entry into a fatherhood program and at subsequent follow-up, and identify the barriers they face.

METHOD

Program Description

This fatherhood program was supported by a grant from the Texas Department of Health (TDH), and the Office of Population Affairs/ Office of Family Planning (OPA/OFP). The goal of this program was to assist young fathers access services that encourage positive health behaviors, responsible parenting, and enhance their relationship with their children. Case managers were assigned to program participants and provided referrals and linkages to community resources. Weekly peer support group meetings facilitated by these case managers were also offered in order to provide a setting where young fathers could interact with each other and process their experiences. These groups discussed topics such as parenting, communication skills, masculinity, anger management, and risk reduction.

Sample

One-hundred and eighty one inner-city young fathers residing in a metropolitan city in the Southwestern United States voluntarily enrolled in the fatherhood program. Thirty-eight young fathers met the established inclusion criteria and were included in this analysis. In order to be included in the study, the young father must have responded to the intake question, and to at least one corresponding follow-up question.

Instrument

This program included a comprehensive assessment which gathered demographics and health behaviors information. For a full description of the study's instrument, see Weinman, Smith, and Buzi (2002). The present study analyzed only the questions pertaining to the relationship young fathers have with their children. At intake the question stated the following: "Please describe in your own words your relationships with your child/children." The corresponding follow-up question was asked at three, six, and twelve months and stated the following: "Please describe in your own words your relationships with your children in the last three months."

Procedure

The case managers administered questionnaires to young fathers upon enrollment to the program and were also responsible for collecting follow-up data at three, six, and 12 months. Each participant signed an informed consent prior to entering into the program. The program protocol was approved by the affiliated academic institutions' Institutional Review Boards.

Data Analysis

The qualitative method of thematic analysis was utilized in this study. It served as an exploratory tool to identify various types of paternal involvement. Thematic analysis as defined by Boyatzis (1998) is a process-oriented methodology that organizes qualitative data. The thematic analysis was conducted in several stages. In the first stage, each young father's responses were typed verbatim without correcting grammatical errors. In the second stage, responses were separated into intake and follow-up. In the third stage, the data were examined for themes. The final stage of data analysis included examination of the changes among thematic categories from intake to follow-up. These changes were identified, and the intake to follow-up migrations were noted. The first two authors independently were responsible for identifying and validating the themes.

RESULTS

Demographics

The sample was comprised of 38 African American young fathers, reflecting the ethnic composition of the target community. The mean age of these young men was 21.39 (SD = 2.13; range = 17-25). The mean age when they first became fathers was 18.84 (SD = 2.37; range = 14-25). Thirty (81%) young fathers reported that they were unemployed, while 7 (18.4%) reported having a job.

Emerging Themes

Three themes emerged from the data at intake and follow-up. They can be described as Positive Emotionality, Engagement, and Accessibility. The themes will be described and selected quotes will be used to validate these interpretations. In order to maintain the authenticity of the data, spelling and grammar errors were not corrected.

Positive Emotionality

The theme Positive Emotionality was characterized by young fathers' positive expressions of emotions about their children. Twenty-two (57.9%) young fathers were included in this category at intake and 13 (34.2%) were in this category at follow-up.

The following statements exemplified the theme of Positive Emotionality:

Intake:

"Like Father-n-son Love."

"My son is my life, I love him like I love football, he is my motivation to strive to be the best."

"I love my Boy he is my life and if I can I couldn't see him my life wouldn't be right."

"Me and my child is so close it is almost as if we are sisters and brothers."

Follow-up:

"Lovely" (respondent drew a rose)

"My relationship with my 2 year-old daughter has been very special. My daughter and I have maintained a very close relationship over the past 3 months and I love her a lot."

Engagement

Engagement was characterized by statements that described interactions between the young fathers and children. Intreractions included events, activities, play, and/or caretaking. This theme comprised emotions young fathers felt, but also included a concrete expression of interaction with their children. Five (28.9%) of fathers' expressions were categorized as Engagement at intake and 16 (42.1%) of fathers' statements were categorized as Engagement at follow-up.

The following statements exemplified the theme of Engagement:

Intake:

"I think nothing else could be as loving as a relationships with your kids.

Our is very good we do Lot's of things together as a family should do.

And we love spending time with one another."

"I keep my child anytime I am not busy. She also goes to church and other places with me."

Follow-up:

"Happy to see him and her, play with him a lot at the park. Love them with all my heart. We are bonding well together she is only 2 months.

Hellava Ass bond. Going to the park. Much love especially w/my son."

"My children and I have a pretty strong bond, closer than two coats of paint. We do things together like go to the park or even a morning walk to school."

"Me and my son is very good together, he bring the best out of me. We spend time together all the time. We do things like, running around chasing each other around. Just having a good time being in each others presents. My son is two yrs. old, but he knows and love his daddy. And in return I love him also."

"When I get off of work I see my lil girls every evening and morning before I go to. I love her hold, feed her everyday of my life. Cool."

Accessibility

Accessibility was characterized by expressions that demonstrated difficulties young fathers experience in accessing their children. These expressions also captured young fathers' negative emotions such as frustration due to their inability to see their children. Eleven (28.9%) statements at intake and 9 (23.7%) at follow-up were categorized as Accessibility.

The following statements exemplified the theme of Accessibility:

Intake:

"Currently I have no relationship with my child."

"I think my relationship with my child is not the way I would like it to be. And I would like to spend more time with him. And the reason I don't spend enough time with him is because I don't have not transportation."

"I wish I could have a better relationship with my child."

Follow-up:

"Mother is in Jail haven't been able to see her she stays with her grandma and auntie."

"Their has not been a relationship with the child or the mother."

"No relationship at all. I am trying to get my life together first."

"I love my child with all my heart and when I get my life right, and I will want her to spend more time with me."

"I see my child once awhile. My ex. and I are not on very good terms."

Comparison between Intake and Follow-up

Responses at intake were compared to responses at follow-up to track changes in level of involvement. The comparison indicated that upon intake, the responses of 22 (57.9%) young fathers matched the theme of Positive Emotionality, 5 (13.2%) matched Engagement, and 11 (28.9%) matched Accessibility. In the follow-up comparison, 13 (34.2%) young fathers' statements matched Positive Emotionality, 16 (42.1%) were Engagement, and 9 (23.7%) were Accessibility (Table 1). The responses of 21 (55.3%) of the participants differed thematically from intake to follow-up and 17 (44.7%) remained the same. The most noticeable shift between categories was that 12 (31.6%) fathers changed from Positive Emotionality at intake to Engagement at follow-up (Table 2).

DISCUSSION

This study examined the nature of young fathers' involvement with their children upon entry to a fatherhood program and at subsequent follow-up. Three themes emerged: Positive Emotionality, Engagement, and Accessibility. Upon intake, the majority (57.9%), of the fathers' statements were related to Positive Emotionality, 28.9% expressed the theme of Accessibility, and 13.2% described Engagement.

Overall, the model of paternal involvement that emerged in this study differs from the adult model suggested by Lamb et al. (1985, 1987). This can be explained by the fact that young fathers transition to parenthood prematurely and therefore lack the repertoire of skills and information that are required to fully support their children. The major difference between these models is that the adult model does not include a component of Positive Emotionality. Lamb et al.'s model may suggest that most adult fathers already developed a sense of emotional connectedness with their children. Emotional connectedness is a prerequisite for the completion of the parental role. However, young fathers' strong emphasis on Positive Emotionality may indicate that adolescent fathers are in the initial stages of developing that connectedness. Their ability to verbalize affection may reflect movement toward higher levels of involvement.

Accessibility is another theme that emerged in this study but is not addressed in the Lamb et al. (1985, 1987) model, possibly because they made the assumption that adult fathers have access to their children. In the present study, however, 28% of the fathers identified at intake issues related to lack of accessibility to their children. This finding is also reported in other studies which show that many young fathers struggle with "lack of access" to their children (Dallas & Chen, 1998). Case managers in this young fatherhood program reported that young fathers identify "baby mamma drama" as a familiar colloquial term used to describe situations where the mothers of their children do not allow them access to the child. Such denial is often tied to the father's lack of financial support. This observation is also supported in the literature (Rozie-Battle, 2003).

Since a substantial number of young men demonstrated a shift between intake and follow-up in their level of involvement with their children, it can be argued that participation in the program facilitated this positive progression. This progression is also supported by the observations of the case managers, who described positive changes in regard to involvement with children that occurred among young fathers who were active participants in the program. This suggests that fatherhood programs can assist young fathers in developing more effective skills that are essential for the completion of the fatherhood role. Given the premature transition from adolescence to fatherhood, this program with all of the elements of case management, mentoring, parent training, and employment assistance has enabled these young fathers to become actively involved in the lives of their children.

IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this study have important implications for practice. It is important that practitioners view the love or emotionality young fathers express for their children as a strength or precursor to higher levels of involvement. Thus, from that base, practitioners can educate young fathers about their parenting roles, while simultaneously supporting them with their own developmental issues. Through the modalities of education and support, young fathers may advance in both their level of paternal involvement and their own development. Practitioners should be aware that young fathers who lack access to their children experience a great deal of sadness and even loss. These feelings may be masked by frustration and anger. Acknowledging and validating these feelings can be reassuring for the young fathers.

Resolving accessibility issues is very complex and requires the fathers to develop more maturity and skills. It is essential that programs engage young fathers in a process of learning new communication and negotiation skills. Moreover, as the findings of this study highlight the relationship between accessibility and financial responsibility, it is clear that programs should also focus on assisting young fathers in gaining employment. However, as young fathers experience multiple challenges in securing employment, programs have to develop creative strategies to help them. This may include building partnerships with community agencies and businesses, providing stipends for skill building, and developing direct relationships with potential employers.

Due to the paucity of research in the area of young fathers' paternal involvement, more research on the configuration of involvement needs to be undertaken. Additional studies pertaining to this group are necessary in order to develop effective practices.

REFERENCES

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Barret, R. L., & Robinson, B. E. (1985). The adolescent fathers: In S. M. Hanson & F. W. Bozett (Eds.), The dimensions of fatherhood (pp. 353-368). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S. & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71(1), 127-136.

Dallas, C. M., & Chen, S. C. (1998). Experiences of African American adolescent fathers. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 20(2), 210-233.

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Johnson, W. E., Jr. (2001). Young African American fathers: Indicators of their paternal involvement. In A. M. Neal-Barnett, J. M. Contreras, & K. A. Kerns (Eds.), Forging links: African American children clinical developmental perspectives. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1985). Paternal behavior in humans. American Zoologist, 25, 883-894.

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In J. Lancaster, J. Altmann, A. Rossi, & L. Sherood (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111-142). New York: Aldine de Bruyter.

LaRossa, R., & Reitzes, D. C. (1993). Continuity and change in middle class fatherhood, 1925-1939: The culture-conduct connection. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55(2), 455-465.

Lerman, R., & Sorensen, E. (2000). Father involvement with their nonmarital children: Patterns, determinants, and effects of their earnings. Marriage and Family Review, 29(2/3), 137-158.

Miller, D. B. (1994). Influences on parental involvement of African American adolescent fathers. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11(5), 363-378.

Office of Population Affairs. Office of Family Planning--Male Involvement Projects Services. Office of Public Health and Science. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.hhs.gov/progorg/opa/opa.html

Pleck, J. H. (1997). Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

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Rhein, L. M., Ginsburg, K. R., Schwarz, D. F., Pinto-Martin, J. A., Zhao, H., Morgan, A. P., & Slap, G. B. (1997). Teen father participation in child rearing: Family perspectives. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 244-252.

Rozie-Battle, J. (2003). Economic support and the dilemma of teen fathers. Journal of Health and Social Policy, 17(1), 73-86.

Summers, J. A., Raikes, H., Butler, J., Spicer, P., Pan, B., Shaw, S., Langager, M., McAllister, C., & Johnson, M. K. (1999). Low-income fathers' and mothers' perceptions of the father role: A qualitative study in four Early Head Start communities. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20(3), 291-301.

Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Wei, E. H. (1998). The precursors of young fatherhood and its effect on delinquency of teenage males. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22(6), 56-65.

U.S. Bureau of the Census (2004). America's families and living arrangements: 2003. Retrieved on January 2005 from the WWW: http://www.census.-gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf

Weinman, M. L., Smith, P. B., & Buzi, R. S. (2002). Young Fathers: An analysis of risk behaviors and service needs. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 19(6), 437-453.

This study was partially funded by the Office of Population Affairs, the O'Neil Foundation, and the Texas Department of Health.

Mahasin F. Saleh, Teen Health Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.

Ruth S. Buzi, Teen Health Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.

Maxine L. Weinman, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Houston, Texas.

Peggy B. Smith, Teen Health Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Ruth S. Buzi, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030. E-mail: rbuzi@bcm.tmc.edu

Table 1
Intake and Follow-up Responses

Response Intake Follow-up

Positive Emotionality 22 (57.9%) 13 (34.2%)
Engagement 5 (13.2%) 16 (42.1%)
Accessibility 11 (28.9%) 9 (23.7%)

Table 2
Changes Between Intake and Follow-up Responses

Response Change

Positive Emotionality both at intake 7 (18.4%)
 and follow-up

Engagement both at intake 4 (10.5%)
 and follow-up

Accessibility both at intake 6 (15.8%)
 and follow-up

Change from Positive Emotionality at intake 12 (31.6%)
 to Engagement at follow-up

Change from Engagement at intake 3 (7.9%)
 to Positive Emotionality at follow-up

Change from Accessibility at intake 3 (7.9%)
 to Positive Emotionality at follow-up

Change from Positive Emotionality at intake 2 (5.2%)
 to Accessibility at follow-up

Change from Engagement at intake 1 (2.6%)
 to Accessibility at follow-up

Intake to Follow-up Migration

21 (55.3%) changed categories from intake to follow-up
17 (44.7%) identified the same category both at intake
and follow-up