Sources of support and psychological distress among academically successful inner-city youth.

Kenny, Maureen E. ; Gallagher, Laura A. ; Alvarez-Salvat, Rose 等

Adolescence is a time of normative developmental stress, but for students living in urban environments and attending inner-city public schools, the developmental challenges of adolescence can be complicated by multiple stressors (Dryfoos, 1990). In comparison with more affluent suburban high schools, inner-city high schools are characterized by higher rates of behavior problems and academic failure (Allen & Mitchell, 1998). Students attending urban schools often experience a number of environmental risks, including lower parental education, single parenthood, minority group status, and negative, stressful life events, that often accompany low levels of economic resources, and contribute cumulatively to psychiatric disorders, behavioral problems, academic failure, and low social and emotional competence (Gallay & Flanagan, 2000; Sameroff & Seifer, 1995). Much attention has been paid to the problems of urban youth, with much less attention focused on academically successful youth (Garmezy & Rutter, 1983; Gibbs, 1998).

The literature on "resilience" has been helpful in directing attention toward youth who succeed despite low levels of economic resources and high levels of life stress, and in identifying factors that can serve "protective" functions by fostering competence (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Although resilience has been helpful in focusing attention on the strengths that are prevalent within so-called "at-risk" groups, the construct has been criticized for contributing to an overly simplistic understanding of psychological adaptation (Luthar, 1991; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000) and a disregard for overwhelming hardships experienced by some of the nonresilient youth (Garbarino, 1999). The present research explored sources and patterns of resilience among academically successful inner-city high school students. Study 1 examined the relationship between parental attachment, depressive symptoms, and academic achievement among a multiethnic sample of ninth-, tenth-, and twelfth-grade students. Study 2 was designed to provide a more in-depth examination of sources of support, life stress, and patterns of resilience for the 16 high school seniors from Study 1.

STUDY 1

One of the most widely reported predictors of resilience is the presence of a positive relationship with a caring adult (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998), and the presence of a close relationship with a caring parental figure has been related to positive outcomes among children facing ordinary and extraordinary life stress (Rutter, 1987). The attachment paradigm has been heuristic in understanding the protective role of adult caretakers. According to Bowlby (1973), caregivers who consistently recognize and sensitively respond to their children's needs for comfort, security, and independent exploration contribute to a sense of self as valued and competent. Furthermore, the availability of the attachment figure as a source of comfort and security is theorized to reduce anxiety and contribute to competence in interacting with the world (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). Insecure attachment can be seen as a risk factor for maladaptive outcomes, with the negative internal working model of the self that develops in the context of insecure attachment theorized to contribute to the development of depressive cognitions and depressive symptoms (Cummings & Cicchetti, 1990), as well as anxiety and conduct disorders (Allen, Moore, & Kuperminc, 1997).

Although the protective value of caretaker attachments is documented among diverse samples of young children (Van Ijzendoorn & Sagi, 1999), research has not explored the relationship between attachment to parents or extended family members among urban adolescents. Since the importance of specific protective factors is known to vary across developmental levels and contexts (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998), findings pertaining to young children may not pertain to older children. Because young children are particularly dependent upon caretakers, for example, the quality of attachment relationships may be a more critical protective factor during early childhood than during the adolescent years when a wider network of caring adults and peers may be accessed for support. Secure parental attachments nevertheless are hypothesized to provide a source of comfort and safety during the multiple life changes of adolescence by supporting independent strivings and offering guidance when needed (Hauser & Bowlds, 1990; Kenny, 1987 ). This hypothesis is supported by a substantive body of research (Armsden, McCauley, Greenberg, Burke, & Mitchell, 1990; Kenny, 1987; Kenny, Moilanen, Lomax, & Brabeck, 1993; Kobak & Sceery, 1988; Kobak, Sudler, & Gamble, 1991; Papini & Roggman, 1992), suggesting that secure parental attachments are associated with a positive view of self, buffer life stress, and protect against depressive symptoms among middle-class suburban high school students. Although prior research has not examined characteristics of parental attachment among ethnically diverse, inner-city high school students, research does suggest that a close relationship with caretakers buffers the negative effects of stress among urban African American adolescents (Taylor, 1996; Taylor, Casten, & Flickinger, 1993).

The application of attachment theory to understanding the academic and emotional functioning of ethnically and socioeconomically diverse inner-city youth could be limited, however, for a number of reasons. Although establishing autonomy, while maintaining positive relationships with parental figures, is considered a normative and critical developmental task of adolescence, how this task is accomplished is inevitably impacted by culture, socioeconomic status, and neighborhood safety (Allen et al., 1997). African American and Puerto Rican mothers' perceptions of low-income urban neighborhoods as unsafe, for example, has been found to be negatively associated with a willingness to encourage the independent strivings of their adolescent children (Taylor et at, 2000). Thus, research examining the importance of attachment relationships among ethnically diverse inner-city youth should consider the dual attachment functions of maintaining affective closeness and facilitating independence. This study examined the rela tionship between adolescent ratings of affective closeness and facilitation of autonomy for maternal and paternal attachment and indicators of academic achievement and psychological functioning.

Participants

Included in the study were 100 students (boys = 32, girls = 68) enrolled in a high school-university collaborative program that seeks to prepare urban public school students for college admission and success by attending academic enrichment classes on the college campus two Saturday mornings per month. The program participants were drawn from ethnically and culturally diverse urban high schools in the northeastern United States, where students and their families speak many languages and face the challenges associated with being first and second-generation Americans. The student body at one school was 64.8% Black, 20.1% Latino, 12.9% White, and 1.9% Asian, with bilingual education programs offered in Haitian and Greek. The student body of the second high school was 42% Black, 35% Hispanic, 15% Asian, and 8% White, with bilingual education offered in Spanish. Students were selected for the program in the eighth grade based upon academic achievement, teacher ratings, application essays, and interviews.

Fifty-five of the participants in the current sample were in ninth grade, 29 in tenth grade, and 16 in twelfth grade. Students' self-reported ethnic/racial backgrounds were 54 Black, 19 White, 18 Hispanic, and 9 Asian. Thirty-nine percent of students reported living with 2 parents, 52% with mother only, 7% with father only, 1% with other relatives, and 1% with a foster parent. Based upon student self report, 70% of students would be the first person in their family to attend college.

Procedure

Students completed questionnaires during one of the Saturday morning program sessions held on the university campus. The authors and graduate assistants explained the study to the high school students in small groups and were available to answer questions as needed.

Measures

Attachment. Two subscales of the Parental Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ; Kenny, 1987; Kenny et al., 1993) were used to assess adolescents' perceptions of the emotional support and fostering of autonomy dimensions of mother and father attachment. The Affective Quality of Attachment Scale consists of 26 items (e.g., my mother/father is someone I can count on to listen to me when I feel upset; is sensitive to my feelings and needs) and the Parental Fostering of Autonomy Scale consists of 14 items (e.g., my mother/father respects my privacy; respects my decisions even if they don't agree). Participants respond to each item using a 5-point scale with values ranging from "not at all" (1) to "very much" (5). Students were instructed to provide a separate rating for mother and father and to indicate whether the rating pertained to a biological, adoptive, step, foster, or other parent figure. Students could indicate that they do not have a mother or father figure and that they would not be responding. One hundred part icipants provided ratings for mother and 84 for father.

Kenny (1987) reported test-retest reliability of the attachment measure over a 2-week interval of .92 for the measure as a whole. For the current sample, internal consistencies (Cronbach's alpha) for the father scales were both .87, and .91 for the maternal affective quality and .94 for maternal fostering of autonomy scales. With respect to validity (Kenny & Donaldson, 1991), PAQ subscales have correlated moderately with conceptually relevant subscales of the Family Environment Scale (FES; Moos & Moos, 1986).

Depressive symptoms. The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1983) was used to assess the severity of depressive symptomatology across a broad range of symptoms. The CDI is a 27-item self-report measure that is used with youth from 7 through 17 years of age. Each item consists of three statements that reflect differing levels of severity and is scored on a scale from 0 through 2. Reported internal consistency reliabilities (coefficient alpha) were .86 for a diagnostically heterogeneous psychiatric sample of youths from 8 through 13 years of age and .87 for a large sample of Toronto public school students (Kovacs, 1983). Test-retest reliabilities of .76 and .84 were reported for student samples tested at three weeks and nine weeks (Kovacs, 1983). With respect to validity, the CDI has been found to correlate in the expected direction with the Dysthymia Checklist (Haley, Fine, Marriage, Moretti, & Freeman, 1985) and measures of self-esteem and self-concept (Kovacs, 1983, 1992).

School achievement. Students' grade point averages for the current academic year were obtained from school administrative offices and were used in monitoring students' progress in the program. Grade point average was assessed utilizing a 4.0 scale.

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses

Nine multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were completed for gender, race, and grade on father attachment, mother attachment, and the two dependent variables (i.e., grade point average and depressive symptoms). Analyses revealed no significant gender, grade, or race/ethnicity differences. These demographic variables were thus not considered in subsequent analyses. Means, standard deviations, and ranges for all variables are presented in Table 1.

Main Analyses: Attachment, Depressive Symptoms, and School Achievement

Four multiple regression analyses were completed to assess the separate contributions of maternal and paternal attachment to level of depressive symptoms and school achievement (see Table 2 for correlation matrix). For each analysis, the affective quality of attachment and the parental fostering of autonomy scales were entered as a block. Scales of secure maternal attachment, particularly affective quality of maternal attachment (beta = .31, p < .02), contributed significantly and positively to school grade point average (R = .25, R-square change = .06, p < .04). Neither scale of paternal attachment was associated significantly with grade point average. Scales of secure paternal attachment, particularly affective quality of paternal attachment (beta = -.25, p < .05), contributed significantly and negatively to level of depressive symptom (R = .46, R-square change = .21, p < .0001). Maternal attachment was unrelated to depressive symptoms.

DISCUSSION

These findings add to the body of research documenting the adaptive value of parental attachment among adolescents, further suggesting that parental attachment may support academic achievement and protect inner-city youth from depressive symptoms. Consistent with prior research on adaptive parenting style of inner-city adolescents (Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, & Hiraga, 1996), the affective quality of the parental relationship, rather than parental fostering of autonomy, was associated with increased competence. Prior research has interpreted this as a function of neighborhood danger (Jarrett, 1995; Taylor et al., 2000). The current study did not include neighborhood variables, but some of the students are known to live in areas of the city where crime is prevalent.

The current study provides evidence that the quality of relationships with fathers may be important to the psychological well-being of inner-city youth. Although much of the research on fathers of adolescents, especially among urban and ethnic minority youth, has focused on paternal absence and the negative impacts of paternal neglect and abuse, the importance of close and supportive paternal relationship, regardless of whether the father lives with his children, for positive psychosocial development in adolescence has been evidenced in prior studies (Lamb, 1986; Schulman & Seiffge-Krenke, 1997). Zimmerman, Salem, and Maton (1995) found that the amount of time that African American adolescent sons spent with their fathers was inversely related to anxiety and depression and that emotional support from fathers was positively associated with self-esteem and negatively associated with depression. A study including both male and female African American adolescents yielded similar findings, with time spent with fat hers associated with lower levels of depression, as well as lower levels of drug, alcohol, and cigarette use (Zimmerman, Salem, & Notaro, 1998). In a study of African American college students, Rice, Cunningham, and Young (1997) also found that attachment to father was more strongly associated with emotional well-being than was attachment to mother.

Evidence that the quality of the maternal attachment might play a role in academic achievement, whereas paternal attachment may be more relevant to freedom from depression, warrants further examination in future research. Consistent with our results, Hinderlie and Kenny (1999) assessed the contributions of on-campus sources of support and parental attachments with college adjustment among Black college students and found that maternal attachment added to on-campus support in predicting academic adjustment, whereas paternal attachment added to on-campus support in explaining personal adjustment. Conversely, some theory and research suggest that fathers may be particularly important during the adolescent years in linking youth with resources beyond the family (e.g., employment) and in supporting academic achievement (Zimmerman, Salem, & Notaro, 2000). Fathers' importance in fulfilling these functions may be constrained, however, when they do not have access to capital resources, such as well-paying jobs and opp ortunities for advancement (Gordon, 2000).

STUDY 2

Whereas Study 1 explored the value of parental attachments, extended family and nonkin adults are also known to fulfill attachment functions in supporting personal and academic adjustment, especially within families of color (Harrison, Wilson, Pine, Chan, & Buriel, 1990; Kenny & Perez, 1996). Research focusing on resilient youth suggests that a close and supportive relationship with an extended family member or nonfamily adult is often important in enabling youth who are exposed to high levels of stress to develop competence (Hauser & Bowlds, 1990; Werner & Smith, 1992). Friendships provide another important source of support for many adolescents, although peer relationships can also undermine parental efforts to foster academic achievement (Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992), especially among involuntary minorities who may distrust academic achievement as a means for social mobility (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). In recognition of the limitation of focusing on maternal and paternal figures as a sole source of sup port, Study 2 explored students' perceptions of support from extended family and nonkin adults, as well as peer support.

This study was also designed to explore several questions that have been posed in conjunction with the growing popularity of research concerning resilience. Luthar (1991), for example, suggests that the achievement of competence under conditions of stress may yield a cost in terms of psychological distress. Resilient inner-city youth, with records of strong academic success, have been found to experience high levels of internal distress, including depression (Luthar, 1991; Luthar, Doernberger, & Zigler, 1993). Accordingly, research has begun to question the usefulness of global definitions of resilience and instead to assess protective factors associated with adaptive functioning in different and specific domains (Luthar et al., 2000). Garbarino (1999) also warns that the concept of resilience may be overstated and that symptoms of psychological distress will be evident when children are exposed to a sufficiently high level of risk. Care should be taken not to blame distressed individuals for evidencing sympt oms in response to their distress, but rather efforts should be made to reduce sources of societally imposed risk. Those who are academically successful and relatively free of emotional distress may be confronting relatively few sources of risk, rather than being psychologically invulnerable. Despite these cautions and limitations, resilience is a promising concept for its implications in regard to prevention and treatment interventions (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Identifying processes that contribute to resilience and promote healthy adjustment suggests possible points for intervention in supporting positive development (Cowen, Wyman, Work, Kim, Fagen, & Magnus, 1997).

This study was designed to examine relationships with caring adults, including biological parents, extended family members and nonkin adults, among academically successful inner-city high school students. With consideration to Luthar's premise that "resilient" youth may not exhibit competence across all areas of functioning, we also identified subgroups of students who were competent in academic functioning and reported low levels of depressive symptoms or were competent in only one of these domains. Familial and nonfamilial sources of support and levels of psychosocial stress were examined for each subgroup.

Participants

The 16 seniors had participated in the program for four years and thus represent a select group of inner-city high school students who had persisted in the university collaborative enrichment program over a four-year period. Self-reported ethnic/racial identification of the senior cohort was Black (8), Asian-American (2), Hispanic (2), and White (4). Nine students reported that they were living with two biological parents, 3 reported living with biological mothers, and 4 with biological mothers and stepfathers. Thirteen of the 16 students reported that they would be first-generation college students. Parent education levels ranged from second grade through college, with high school graduation being most frequent. Recent immigrant parents of three European-American and one Asian-American student had not completed elementary school. The parents of one Latino student and the mother of a Black student were college graduates, and the mother of another Black student had completed an associate degree. Parental occup ations included clerical, service, retail sales, factory, skilled trades, homemaker, accounting, and bookkeeping.

Procedure

The high school seniors participated in semistructured interviews conducted by the first author, graduate students, and several other university faculty, and completed self-report inventories during a Saturday-morning class on the university campus. Rating forms addressing student motivation, leadership, classroom participation, and self-concept were mailed to English, mathematics, social studies, and science teachers.

Measures

Semistructured interview. A semistructured interview protocol was developed for use in this research. Twenty-four questions pertained to relationships with family, friends, and nonfamily adults, including parental encouragement of education, parental communication and support, the occurrence of any major negative family events in the past year, identification of adult role models, and peer support for program participation and academic achievement. Responses were recorded on the interview protocol and coded by the interviewer according to pre-established categories.

Teacher ratings. Teacher ratings were obtained from four teachers for each of the 16 seniors. Teachers were asked to rate each student using a scale from "outstanding" (1) to "poor" (5) for academic effort, behavioral conduct, and leadership/social skills. Teachers also rated students on motivation, classroom participation, leadership/interaction with others, and self-concept/self-esteem on a 5-point scale from "always" (1) to "never" (5).

Social support network. Students' social support networks were assessed using a measure developed by Barrera (1981), Hays and Oxley (1986), and Martin and Burks (1985). Students were asked to respond to the following: "Think of all the people with whom you have contact at school, home, work, in social or religious settings, etc. In the designated space, provide the names of up to ten of those persons who are important in your life at the present time and with whom you feel you have an important relationship." Students were then asked to indicate their relationship with each person as well as the person's racial/ethnic background. They were also asked to rate how often they had argued with each person in the last three weeks and how much they could count on each person to provide six different support functions (emotional support and closeness, social integration, guidance, reliable alliance, reassurance of work, and opportunity for nurturance) using a 3-point Likert scale ranging from "not at all" (0) to "ver y much" (2).

Life events. The Life Event Scale for Junior/Senior High School Students (Coddington, 1972) is a list of 42 life events. Respondents were asked to check all of those events that had occurred within the last year. Norms for nonclinic adolescents were developed with a socioeconomically and racially diverse sample of adolescents (Coddington, 1972).

Academic success. Grade point average and attendance data were obtained from school administrative offices and program records.

Depressive symptoms. See Study 1.

RESULTS

Overall, the high school seniors (4 males and 12 females) in our sample performed well academically and behaviorally throughout their four years of high school. They maintained excellent attendance (attending 94% of all school days over four years of high school) and graduated with a cumulative 3.0 grade point average. Moreover, as revealed through structured interviews, students reported confidence in their ability to achieve their future career and educational goals, which included college and, for most, graduate and professional school. Overall, seniors' positive self-assessments coincided with good to outstanding teacher ratings for their academic motivation, class participation, leadership, and self-concept. The seniors reported overall levels of depressive symptoms comparable to other adolescents their age and ethnicity (Kovacs, 1992; Siegel, Aneshensel, Taub, Cantwell, & Driscoil, 1998). (See Table 3 for means, standard deviations, and ranges of the senior cohort.)

All students described, through the support network questionnaire and the structured interview, significant relationships with at least one parent, grandparent or parental figure in addition to important relationships with siblings, peers, extended family, neighbors, former employers, school counselors, and teachers. Many seniors attributed their academic success, at least in part, to the educational support they received from their social support network. One Black female, for example, described her mother as the "strongest person I know," and another Black female attributed her academic success to "my parents pushing me all the time." In addition, 10 students identified supportive relationships with grandparents, 5 students identified supportive relationships with nieces, nephews, or cousins, and 3 students described important relationships with aunts and uncles.

Peers were also commonly mentioned as important sources of educational as well as personal support. Ten of the students described stable relationship with peers who were supportive and encouraging of participation in the program, which they viewed as a "great opportunity." An Asian-American female described a stable network of friendships, which varied in level of support, indicating that her "closest friends" were supportive of her educational interests. Eleven students reported having friends among program participants. Six students did, however, report significant changes to their peer relationships since entering the program. For example, a Black female stated that she lost her "old" peer friendships after entering the program because they did not understand her educational interests. She felt that she did not "fit in" initially, but eventually was able to develop new relationships supportive of her educational interests.

Following from Luthar's premise that resilience is not a unidimensional construct, we wanted to explore sources of support among adolescents who varied in domains of competence. Subgroups of the senior cohort were identified based upon grade point average and levels of self-reported depressive symptoms. High competence in the domains of academic and emotional functioning was determined by a grade point average of 3.5 or higher and levels of self-reported depressive symptoms considered average or below average for their age (less than 5) according to CDI norms (Kovacs, 1992). Students with a grade point average of 2.5 or less were relatively less successful than their peers. A CDI score evaluated as very much above average according to CDI norms (Kovacs, 1992) provided evidence of some emotional distress. According to these criteria, three of the sixteen students in the senior sample exemplified high competence in both domains assessed. The three students described varied family constellations. One lived with a mother, stepfather, and two siblings, another lived with two biological parents and siblings, and the third lived with a mother and sister. All three described positive family relationships, good communication, and parental encouragement for educational achievement. One student commented that his paternal relationship was particularly important in helping him to think about his future and in problem solving. Another student indicated, however, that although relationships with family were good, he typically did not talk with his mother about his problems. Two of these seniors emphasized the importance of close relationships with nonfamily adults, including extended family m embers who live nearby (grandparents, aunt, uncles, cousins) as well as teachers, guidance counselors, and a parish priest. One student attributed success to support from the college enrichment program and to support from teachers, friends, and family. Two of these seniors reported no negative stressful life events during the past year, and the third reported the breakup with a significant other as the only stressful life event. All three seniors described supportive relationships with friends, with one student listing on his support network a number of friends who were also participants in the college enrichment program.

Two of the seniors excelled academically, yet also reported emotional distress. One student described a close maternal relationship, with whom she discussed personal problems, as well as school and personal relationships. This student also garnered support from a Bible teacher and God. Spirituality, thus, was another identified source of support for this participant. This student has also received encouragement from a best friend, who is also involved in the college enrichment program. The other senior reported relying on cousins, aunts, sisters, teachers and friends for help with school and personal problems. Both of these students reported significant life stress during the past year, including parental divorce, the death of a grandparent, serious illness, and increasing numbers of family arguments.

Although this is a select sample of academically capable students in a college enrichment program, some were identified as relatively less successful in comparison with peers in the program. One senior, whose grades had declined in high school, reported little emotional distress. He reported getting along well with his family and feeling encouraged by his parents to pursue further education. He rated the openness of communication with his parents as high, and stated that he was able to talk with both of his parents about personal problems and school. This participant did not identify close relationships with adults outside of his family. However, he did describe a stable and supportive group of friends, who, although not participants in the enrichment program, were encouraging of his participation. Reported normative and nonnormative stressful life events, which included the death of a close friend, death of a grandparent, increased number of arguments with parents, and beginning to date, were also higher tha n the mean for the senior cohort.

Two seniors were less successful academically than their peers in the program and also reported emotional distress. Both students reported moderate to high levels of parental conflict. One student described parent conflicts concerning cultural differences, but also perceived a moderate level of parental encouragement for academic achievement. Both students described sources of support, other than their parents. One student described close and supportive relationships with a sister and best friend, who was in the college enrichment program. The other student obtained support for school and personal problems from extended family (including grandparents, aunts, and cousins), friends, and teachers in the program. Both students reported a number of stressful life events during the past year, including increased arguments with parents, change in parental financial status, death of a grandparent, death of a close friend, and obtaining a failing grade in school.

Although Study 1 reveals a modest general linear relationship between maternal and paternal attachment and academic and psychological functioning, the senior cohort reveals the complexity of family relationships and perceived importance of family and nonfamily support. Extended family was spontaneously mentioned as an important source of support for four of the eight seniors. Three of these seniors were students of color, consistent with the commonly cited finding that kinship support is particularly important among ethnic minority families (Harrison et al., 1990). Nonfamily adults, including teachers, clergy, and school counselors, were also mentioned, but much less often than extended family. Prior research suggests that support from school staff' can be particularly beneficial for youth from low economic resource environments (DuBois, Felner, Brand, Adan, & Evans, 1992). The availability of extended family and adult nonkin was clearly perceived as important by the students, but did not shield them from dis tress, as students who were classified as both high and low in psychological distress reported important and supportive relationships with extended family. It is impossible to know, however, whether their perceived psychological distress would have been greater had extended family support not been available.

The most successful seniors in terms of academic achievement and low levels of self-reported depressive symptoms described varied family structures, but all reported high levels of family support, low levels of family conflict, and strong support for educational attainment. This description is consistent with prior research which has found that family warmth and supervision, provided through a variety of single-parent, two-parent, and extended family structures, are important to academic achievement (Clark, 1983; Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994). Although single-parent households are often cited as presenting risks to adaptive child development (McLanahan, 1997), links between single-parent status of caretakers with behavioral and academic problems of youth can be accounted for by factors such as financial strain, social support experienced by caretakers, and parenting style (Florsheim, 2000). The seniors who reported substantial psychological distress based upon self-reports of depressive symptoms also descri bed substantial family conflict. This finding is consistent with reports of depressed adolescents (Rutter, 1986) and with studies of immigrant adolescents in which parent-child conflict was identified as the single strongest predictor, beyond the effects of intact family structure, of adolescent distress (Rumbaut, 2000). The relationship between family conflict and adolescent depression cannot be considered causal, however. Among varied possible explanations, the behavioral and emotional difficulties of the adolescent may be contributing to the family conflict, the adolescents' negative perceptions of the family may be influenced by their depressed mood, or both family conflict and adolescent depression may be precipitated by other stressful, negative events.

Stable friendships with peers were also mentioned as important sources of support among the high school seniors, which is consistent with descriptions of resilient youth as well-liked by classmates, and having one or more close and stable friendships, on which they rely for ongoing emotional support (Werner & Smith, 1992). This protective understanding of peer support counters other evidence that inner-city peers have a negative impact on scholastic achievement (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Luthar, 1995). The tension between peer relationships and academic achievement was noted by several of the seniors, although many resolved these tensions by developing supportive friendships with other program participants, who may have shared similar values for achievement.

A striking observation emerging from examination of the subgroup of the senior class that demonstrated academic and psychological success is the absence of nonnormative stressful life events. Although it has been argued that stressful life events can be brought on by the difficulties of the adolescent (Masten, Neeman, & Andenas, 1994), the adolescents who reported substantial levels of psychological distress also reported negative stressful life events, including parental divorce and deaths of family members and friends, that were clearly beyond their control. As asserted by Garbarino (1999), substantive life stress is likely to have an impact on psychological well-being, regardless of the presence of protective factors. Consistent with the views of Luthar (1999), psychological distress is not uncommon among high achieving inner-city youth, nor is it inevitable. Fourteen students out of the total sample reported significant levels of depressive symptoms.

The analysis of the senior cohort makes it clear that much variability exists among inner-city high school students, even among those who are most successful. The senior cohort of 16 students is varied in terms of race, ethnicity, parental educational level, family structure, family relationships, and in levels of psychological functioning. For some, academic competence is accompanied by emotional well-being and for others, as noted by Luthar, competence in the academic domain has not shielded them from psychological distress. Based upon the variability in these factors, we should be guarded in making simplistic generalizations about the adolescents who attend inner-city public schools. Nevertheless, our analyses are consistent with past findings that highlight relational protective factors, which may be important in supporting the academic achievement and psychological well-being of these youth.

OVERALL DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

A number of limitations must be considered in evaluating these findings. First, the students were drawn from a unique program designed to support the continued academic achievement and future college success of urban high school students. The extent to which the perceptions and attitudes of these students are comparable to academically successful students in other public urban high schools is unknown, as is the impact of program participation on the attitudes and well-being of these students. Much of the data were based upon student self-report and thus are limited by student perceptions and their willingness to honestly share their views. Our exploration of the importance of culture, peers, and extended family is constrained by the small sample and uniqueness of the senior group. Although the use of both quantitative analyses and a smaller number of structured interviews was informative, future research should access a larger sample to assess the interplay of multiple, interactive risk and protective factors related to parental attachment, extended family, peer affiliations, life stress, and culture in order to gain a clearer understanding of the ways in which these factors interact in additive and compensatory ways. Alternatively, qualitative interviews that assess all of these factors with a representative sample of inner-city high school youth would be valuable in providing a richer understanding of the academic and personal lives of youth attending inner-city high schools.

Nevertheless, our findings have implications for prevention and treatment interventions for counselors and educators working with adolescents in clinical and school settings. Understanding risk and protective factors is important for designing and implementing effective prevention and treatment interventions (Vera & Reese, 2000), which should seek to strengthen protective processes that promote competence and potentially reduce the impact of risk factors (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Rutter, 1987). Given that the family, peer group, and school are significant contexts for the adolescent, preventive interventions should attempt to develop strengths and modify potential risks across these contexts (Vera & Reese, 2000). Consistent with other suggestions for prevention and treatment intervention with youth in high-risk environments (e.g., Masten & Coatsworth, 1998), this study points to the importance for adolescents to develop strong and healthy relationships with parental figures or other positive caring adults. While the quantitative findings include only parental figures, the senior data also point to the importance of extended family and nonfamilial adults. Therefore, counselors working with adolescents should attempt to promote positive relationships with parents, but recognize that other extended family and nonfamilial adults can also play critical roles. For students who may have strained relationships with parents or whose parents may not be available for support or encouragement, counselors can help adolescents identify other adults in their lives who may play a role in supporting academic achievement and other important goals for their future.

Another implication of the findings is that counselors, teachers, and adult family members should recognize that some adolescents who may be excelling academically may not be exhibiting "resilience" in all domains. For example, the experience of both normative and nonnormative life events may contribute to lower levels of competence. For those students who have experienced stressful life events (e.g., parental divorce, death of a loved one, relationship disruptions), counselors can attempt to mobilize support through individual or group counseling, mentoring, or support groups. Counselors might help teens negotiate conflicts that may arise in family and friend relationships. Counselors and teachers should also be aware of the positive functions peer relationships can play in academic achievement and emotional well-being, and encourage the development of student networks based upon involvement in positive interests, such as academics, community service, athletics, civic engagement, and religion. Some students in our senior cohort found the opportunity to develop friendships and garner support from other academically successful students in the program to be helpful. Our findings also suggest the importance of culture as a source of strength and pride, as well as intergenerational conflict. In working with culturally diverse adolescents, counselors should be aware of family cultural norms, as well as the potential strain of immigration and acculturation. Although we offer several implications for intervention based upon our findings, future research needs to assess the efficacy of these intervention strategies in supporting the academic competence and emotional well-being of academically successful innercity youth.

Table 1

 Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranges for Overall Sample (N = 100)

 Females (n = 68)
Variables M SD Range

Attachment: Mother
 Affect 72.33 18.18 32.0 - 103.3
 Autonomy 47.57 10.45 25.0 - 68.9
Attachment: Father
 Affect 68.64 19.92 25.0 - 101.1
 Autonomy 46.87 10.77 24.0 - 70.0
Depressive Symptoms 7.44 5.77 0.0 - 24.0
Grade Point Average 3.09 0.50 1.7 - 3.9

 Males (n = 32)
Variables M SD Range

Attachment: Mother
 Affect 75.45 15.37 48.0 - 101.0
 Autonomy 48.78 8.65 32.0 - 66.0
Attachment: Father
 Affect 73.57 14.97 41.0 - 97.0
 Autonomy 49.71 9.55 26.0 - 66.0
Depressive Symptoms 5.25 4.47 0.0 - 17.0
Grade Point Average 3.04 0.53 1.8 - 3.9
Table 2

Correlations for the Total Sample (N = 100)

 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Affect: Mother --
2. Affect: Father .24 (*) --
3. Autonomy: Mother .66 (**) .08 --
4. Autonomy: Father .15 .71 (**) .28 (*) --
5. Depressive Symptoms .02 .44 (*) -.09 -.40 (*) --
6. Grade Point Average .26 .11 .08 .06 .00 --

Note. (*)P <.05; (**)P <.001
Table 3.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranges for Seniors

Variables M SD Range

Attachment: Mother (n = 16)
 Affect 67.71 18.95 40.0 - 95.0
 Autonomy 45.38 13.49 25.0 - 66.0
Attachment: Father (n = 14)
 Affect 65.36 22.98 28.0 - 93.0
 Autonomy 45.64 11.99 26.0 - 66.0
Depressive Symptoms (n = 16) 7.63 6.67 0.0 - 24.0
Grade Point Average (n = 16) 3.10 .61 2.0 - 3.8

REFERENCES

Allen, L., & Mitchell, C. (1998). Racial and ethnic differences in patterns of problematic and adaptive development: An epidemiological review. In V. C. McLloyd & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents (pp. 29-54). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Allen, J. P., Moore, C., & Kuperminc, G.P. (1997). Developmental approaches to understanding adolescent deviance. In S. S. Luthar, J.A. Burack, D. Cichetti, & J. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, risk, and disorder (pp. 548-567). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Armsden, G. C., McCauley, E., Greenberg, M.T., Burke, P.M., & Mitchell, J. . (1990). Parent and peer attachment in early adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 683-697.

Barrera, M. (1981). Social support in the adjustment of pregnant adolescents. In B.H. Gottlieb (Ed.), Social networks and social support (pp. 69-96). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation. New York: Basic Books.

Clark, R.M. (1983). Family life and school achievement: Why poor black children succeed or fail. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Coddington, R.D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children: 11-A study of a normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205-213.

Connell, J.P., Spencer, M. B., & Aber, J. L. (1994). Educational risk and resilience in African-American youth: Context, self, action, and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65, 493-506.

Cowen, E., Wyman, P., Work, W., Kim, J., Fagen, D., & Magnus, K. (1997). Follow-up study of young stress-affected and stress-resilient urban children. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 565-577.

Cummings, E.M., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Towards a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 339-372). University of Chicago Press.

Dryfoos, J.G. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.

DuBois, D. L., Felner, R. D., Brand, S., Adan, A. M., & Evans, E. G. (1992). A prospective study of life stress, social support, and adaptation in early adolescence. Child Development, 63, 542-557.

Florsheim, P. (2000). The economic and psychological dynamics of non-resident paternal involvement. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 55-87). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum.

Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the burden of "acting white." Urban Review, 18, 176-206.

Gallay, L. S., & Flanagan, C. A. (2000). The well-being of children in a changing economy: Time for a new social contract in America. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 3-33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Garbarino, J. (1999). The effects of community violence on children. In B. Lawrence & C. Tamis-Lamonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 412425). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

Garmezy, N., & Rutter, M. (1983). Stress, coping, and development in children. New York: McGraw Hill.

Gibbs, J. T. (1998). High-risk behaviors in African-American youth: Conceptual and methodological issues in research. In V. C. McLoyd & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents: Conceptual, methodological, and thereotical issues (pp. 55-86). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum.

Gordon, E. W. (2000). The myths and realities of African-American fatherhood. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 217-232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum.

Haley, G. M. T., Fine, S., Marriage, K., Moretti, M. M., & Freeman, R. J. (1985). Cognitive bias and depression in psychiatrically disturbed children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 535-537.

Harrison, A. 0., Wilson, M. N., Pine, C. J., Chan, S. Q., & Buriel, R. (1990). Family ecologies of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 61, 347-362.

Hauser, S. T., & Bowlds, M. K. (1990). Stress, coping, and adaptation. In S. Feldman & G. Eliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 388 413). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hays, R. B., & Oxley, D. (1986). Social network development and functioning during a life transition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 305-313.

Hinderlie, H., & Kenny, M. E. (1999, August). Parental attachment, social support and college adjustment among black college students on white campuses. Poster session presented at the 107th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Boston, MA.

Jarrett, R. L. (1995). Growing up poor: The family experiences of socially mobile youth in low-income African-American neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10, 111-135.

Kenny, M. (1987). The extent and function of parental attachment among first-year college students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 17-27.

Kenny, M. E., & Donaldson, G. (1991). Contributions of parental attachment and family structure to the social and psychological functioning of first-year college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 479 486.

Kenny, M. E., Moilanen, D. M., Lomax, R., & Brabeck, M. M. (1993). Contributions of parental attachment to view of self and depressive symptoms among early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 408-430.

Kenny, M. E., & Perez, V. (1996). Applications of attachment theory to adjustment and identity among ethnically diverse first-year college students. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 527-535.

Kobak, R. R., & Sceery, A. (1988). Attachment in late adolescence: Working models, affect regulation, and representation of self and others. Child Development, 59, 135-146.

Kobak, R. R., Sudler, N., & Gamble, W. (1991). Attachment and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A developmental pathways analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 461 474.

Kovacs, M. (1983). The Children's Depression Inventory. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995-999.

Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

Lamb, M. E. (1986). The father's role: Applied perspectives. New York: Wiley.

Luthar, S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600-616.

Luthar, S. S. (1995). Social competence in the school setting: Prospective cross-domain association among inner-city teens. Child Development, 66, 416-429.

Luthar, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children's adjustment: Vol. 41. Developmental clinical psychology and psychiatry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543-562.

Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., & Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents. Developmental and Psychopathology, 5, 703-717.

Martin, B., & Burks, N. (1985). Family and nonfamily components of social support as buffers of stress for college women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 448-465.

Mason, C. A., Cauce, A. M., Gonzales, N., & Hiraga, Y. (1996). Neither too sweet nor too sour. Problem peers, maternal control, and problem behavior in African-American adolescents. Child Development, 67, 2115-2130.

Masten, A., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.

Masten, A. S., Neeman, J., & Andenas, S. (1994). Life events and adjustment in adolescence: The significance of event independence, desirability, and chronicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 71-98.

McLanahan, S. S. (1997). Parent absence or poverty: Which matters more? In G. Duncan & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 25-48). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1986). Family Environment Scale manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Papini, D. R. & Roggman, L. A. (1992). Adolescent perceived attachment to parents in relation to competence, depression, and anxiety: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 420-440.

Rice, K., Cunningham, T., & Young, M. (1997). Attachment to parents, social competence, and emotional well-being: A comparison of black and white late adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 89-101.

Rumbaut, R. G. (2000). Profiles of resilience: Educational achievement and ambition among children of immigrants in Southern California. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 257-294). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Rutter, M. (1986). The developmental psychopathology of depression: Issues and perspectives. In M. Rutter, C. E. Izard, & P. B. Read (Eds.), Depression in young people: Developmental and clinical perspectives. New York: Guilford.

Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-371.

Salem, D. S., Zimmerman, M. A., & Notaro, P. C. (1998). Effects of family structure, family process, and father involvement on psychosocial outcomes among African-American adolescents. Family Relations, 47, 331-341.

Sameroff, A. J., & Seifer, R. (1995). Accumulation of environmental risk and child mental health. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & B. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of poverty: Research, health, and policy issues (pp. 233-253). New York: Garland Publishing.

Schulman, S., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1997). Fathers and adolescents: Developmental and clinical perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Siegel, J. M., Aneshensel, C. S., Taub, B., Cantwell, D. P., & Driscoll, A. K. (1998). Adolescent depressed mood in a multiethnic sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 413-424.

Sroufe, L. A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the construction of relationships. In W. Hartup & Z. Rubin (Eds.), Relationships and development (pp. 51-71). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Steinberg, L., Dornbusch, S. M., & Brown, B. B. (1992). Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement. American Psychologist, 47, 723-729.

Taylor, R. D. (1996). Adolescents' perceptions of kinship support and family management practices: Association with adolescent adjustment in African American families. Developmental Psychology, 32, 687-795.

Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., & Flickinger, S. M. (1993). Influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African-American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 29, 382-388.

Taylor, R. D., Jacobson, L., Rodriquez, A. U., Dominguez, R. C., Doney, J., Boccuti, A., Alejandro, J., & Toban, C. (2000). Stressful experiences and the psychological functioning of African-American and Puerto Rican families and adolescents. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 233-253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Sagi, A. (1999). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of Attachment (pp. 713-734). New York: Guilford.

Vera, E. M., & Reese, L. E. (2000). Prevention interventions with school-age youth. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of Counseling Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 411-434). New York: Wiley.

Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High-risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Zimmerman, M. A., Salem, D. A., & Maton, K. I. (1995). Family structure and psychosocial correlates among urban African-American adolescent males. Child Development, 66, 1598-1613.

Zimmerman, M. A., Salem, D. A., & Notaro, P. C. (2000). Make room for daddy II: The positive effects of fathers' role in adolescent development. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Work, family, culture, and community (pp. 233-253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Laura Gallagher, Rose Alvarez-Salvat, and John Silsby, Boston College, Department of Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

Reprint requests to Maureen E. Kenny, Boston College, Department of Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Campion 307, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467.