GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF MEXICAN EARLY ADOLESCENTS.

Benjet, Corina ; Hernandez-Guzman, Laura

ABSTRACT

This study examined gender differences in the effects of menarche in females and voice change in males, specifically with regard to depression, self-esteem, body image, and externalizing problems (i.e., behavioral disturbances). In addition, possible modifying variables (relationship with parents, social-emotional adjustment, level of parental education, and menstrual attitudes) were assessed. Participants were 1,102 Mexican youths aged 9 to 14. Analyses indicated that there were no gender differences among prepubertal youths in depression, body image, or self-esteem, but prepubertal males had more externalizing problems than did premenarcheal females. Females increased in depression, externalizing problems, and negative body image postmenarche, while males showed no change in depression, a trend toward fewer externalizing problems, and felt better about their bodies following voice change. Relationship with parents, social-emotional adjustment, parental education, and menstrual attitudes did not modify the r elation between menarche and body image or depression. Based on these findings, suggestions for designing interventions aimed at early adolescent females are presented.

Early adolescence is a time of rapid physical changes and new social demands, which in turn have an impact on psychological development. It is also during this transitional period that gender differences in depression, self-esteem, and body image begin to emerge. Despite findings indicating either no gender difference or a slight propensity for greater depression in prepubescent males than females, from middle adolescence through adulthood, depression becomes more frequent in females (Katragadda & Tidwell, 1998; Petersen, Sarigiani, & Kennedy, 1991). Numerous cross-cultural studies have reported that there is a substantial gender difference in adult depression, with an average female-to-male ratio of two to one (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 1990). In early adolescence females also begin to feel less satisfied with themselves and their bodies. For example, Tobin-Richards, Boxer, and Petersen (1983) found that body image became increasingly more negative with pubertal maturation for females and more po sitive for males. Similarly, Mexican females reported greater self-esteem than did males in third through fifth grades, and then in sixth grade the self-esteem of females plummeted below that of males, who simultaneously had a surge in self-esteem (Verduzco Alvarez-Icaza, Lara-Cantu, Lancelotta, & Rubio, 1989). Other researchers have found all three--depression, body image, and self-esteem--to be worse in early adolescent females than males (Keel, Fulkerson, & Leon, 1997).

Studies investigating precursors of eating disorders during the transition from childhood to adolescence have pointed to an interaction of gender, depression, self-esteem, and body image. For example, among Chinese adolescents, females were found to have more negative body image as compared to males, but they did not differ in terms of self-esteem (Davis & Katzman, 1997). The relationship between body satisfaction and depression was significant for females only. Veron-Guidry, Williamson, and Netemeyer (1997) identified depression and low self-esteem, among other variables, as risk factors for eating disorders in prepubertal females. Kostanski and Gullone (1998) indicated that dissatisfaction with body image in early adolescence was related to gender, self-esteem, and depression.

What might account for the adverse consequences of physical changes occurring during puberty? In particular, what role does pubertal maturation play in undermining the emotional well-being of females? There are several possible explanations. For example, females may face greater challenges during puberty than do males. Females reach puberty, on average, two years prior to males (Tanner, 1955), when they may be emotionally and cognitively less prepared to handle such changes, and when they face the simultaneous transition to middle school. Menarche, in particular, is a concrete symbol of the passage from child to woman, and has been shown, in studies with Anglo American females, to be related to changes in self-concept and increased negative affect. Ruble and Brooks-Gunn (1982) reason that because of the ties between menstruation, femininity, and sexuality, more generalized aspects of a girl's self-concept might be affected by menarche.

Further, female maturation is more visible than is male maturation. While only the adolescent female (and those she chooses to tell) knows her menarcheal status, breast development is noticeable to all. There is also an increase in the percentage of body fat and a decrease in the proportion of shoulder to waist width accompanying menarche, changes that are incongruent with societal ideals for female beauty, whereas males' bodies change in a direction that is more congruent with societal standards for male attractiveness (i.e., they become larger and stronger).

Finally, menarche, a symbol of the female adolescent's emerging womanhood and sexuality, may stimulate an intensification of gender socialization. Hill et al. (1985) have suggested that parents allow adolescent sons more autonomy and try to increase their control of daughters postpuberty. An increase in parental control at a time when the adolescent female is seeking greater autonomy might undermine her sense of competence.

The findings from empirical research into the impact of menarche on females have been mixed. Koff, Rierdan, and Silverstone (1978) and Rierdan and Koff (1980) found that postmenarcheal females were more satisfied with feminine body parts (these researchers did not examine overall body image and their measures were projective). Garwood and Allen (1979) noted that postmenarcheal females had a more positive overall self-concept than did premenarcheal females, though their scores on the Satisfaction with Self subscale of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale were lower, and they reported having more problems. On the other hand, Simmons, Burgeson, Carlton-Ford, and Blyth (1987), using a longitudinal design, found self-esteem, as well as academic achievement and involvement in extracurricular activities, to be adversely affected by menarche (even more so if the adolescent simultaneously had to confront multiple challenges).

Menarche, in combination with other factors, has been found to be related to depression. Brooks-Gunn and Warren (1989) reported that levels of depression rose during times of greatest hormonal increase, but hormones explained 4% of the variance, whereas menarche and age at menarche in combination with negative life events explained 17% of the variance in depression above and beyond that attributable to hormonal levels. Along the same lines, Brooks-Gunn (1988) and Rierdan and Koff (1991) detected greater depression in females who experience menarche early as compared to on-time females. Menarche, in conjunction with poor ego development, has also been found to be associated with greater depression (Rierdan & Koff, 1993). Patton et al. (1996), using a multivariate model, reported that depression and anxiety in females were positively correlated with year in school, however menarcheal status was a stronger predictor. It also has been suggested that coping with stressful life events exacerbates adolescent female s' depressive symptoms, especially when self-esteem is low (Hoffmann & Su, 1998).

The majority of these studies used a simple premenarche-postmenarche paradigm. Yet, Hill et al. (1985) detected increases in mother-daughter conflict six months postmenarche, a return to premenarcheal levels one year postmenarche, and increases again more than one year postmenarche. This illustrates the importance of considering the time lapsed since menarche in order to understand its precise impact.

Not all females experience such adverse consequences postmenarche and thus it is important to explore variables that might either exacerbate or buffer this transition. Risk factors might lie at a contextual-societal level (e.g., parental education), at the level of the parent-child dyad (e.g., the adolescent's perception of parental control, affect, and communication), or at the individual level (e.g., attitudes toward menstruation and the adolescent's social-emotional adjustment). For example, adolescent females from less educated families might have less access to information regarding menstruation, thus affecting their ability to cope and their attitudes toward menstruation (Cuevas Fournier, 1969). Further, Caspi and Moffitt (1991) proposed that transitions such as puberty magnify preexisting individual differences rather than changing social-emotional adjustment. They found that females with behavior problems in childhood and who subsequently reached maturity early had greater difficulty adjusting to ado lescence than did the early maturing females without preexisting problems.

Programs that attempt to prevent psychological maladjustment in adolescents require accurate information about associated variables and the ways in which they interact to promote or hinder well-being. The purpose of the present study was to replicate and clarify previous findings regarding the impact of puberty (specifically menarche in females and voice change in males) on the depression levels, self-esteem, and body image of adolescents. It included the length of time since puberty as a variable. It also explored whether there is a similar process for males and females, that is, whether pubertal changes also undermine males' emotional well-being. One of the possible explanations for the greater postpubertal maladjustment found in females than in males involves the variables chosen for analysis. Males' maladjustment following pubertal changes may be manifested externally (i.e., aggression and conduct disturbances), while females' maladjustment postmenarche may be manifested internally (i.e., depression). Th is research tested that hypothesis by evaluating the impact of menarche for females and voice change for males on aggression and conduct problems as well as depression, self-esteem, and body image. The final objective was to assess possible modifying variables, such as relationship with parents, level of parental education, social-emotional adjustment, and menstrual attitudes, to see whether they are related to level of risk during this transitional time.

METHOD

Participants

The participants were 1,102 Mexican early adolescents, of whom 576 were female and 526 were male (38 had been eliminated from the sample either for answering at least 10 items outside of the range of possibilities or because of a nonserious attitude during the administration of the measures). They were in the fifth (n = 241), sixth (n = 321), and seventh (n = 540) grades at three private and four public schools in Mexico City. The students ranged in age from 9 to 14 years, with an average age of 11.8. Their pubertal status, divided into four categories, is presented in Table 1.

Seventy-six percent of the participants lived in two-parent families. The educational level of their parents was varied: 2% of the fathers and 2% of the mothers had no formal education, 12% of the fathers and 12% of the mothers had a primary school education, 16% of the fathers and 18% of the mothers had a secondary school education, 2% of the fathers and 5% of the mothers had received vocational training, 8% of the fathers and 13% of the mothers had a high school education, and 60% of the fathers and 50% of the mothers reported a university education. Family socioeconomic level was also varied: 2% of the fathers and 46% of the mothers were unemployed, 16% of the fathers and 6% of the mothers were unskilled laborers, 12% of the fathers and 6% of the mothers were skilled laborers, 14% of the fathers and 6% of the mothers were business owners, 2% of the fathers and 7% of the mothers were teachers, and 54% of the fathers and 29% of the mothers were professionals.

Procedure

The principal of each school, and in some cases other school administrators as well, reviewed and agreed to participate in the project. Informed consent was obtained from each student, with only a few who did not wish to participate. The students were told of the study in their classrooms and were asked to respond to the questionnaire during class time. Results of the study were later provided to each school.

Measures

Pubertal status. For females, two items assessed whether they had experienced menarche and at what age. Self-reports of menarcheal status have been shown to be fairly accurate over time (Brooks-Gunn, Warren, Rosso, & Gargiulo, 1987). For males, four items assessed whether their voice had deepened and the growth of pubic hair had begun and at what age. Voice change in males occurs in the same stages of pubertal development as menarche in females (i.e., Tanner stages three and four). In the final analyses, voice change alone was employed as the measure of pubertal maturation in males due to its being a relatively more concrete event than pubic hair growth and thus easier for the males to locate in time.

Depression. Depression was measured using a Spanish language version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD; Radloff, 1977). The Spanish version has been validated for Mexican early adolescents (Benjet, Hernandez-Guzman, Tercero-Quintanilla, Hernandez-Roque, & Chartt-Leon, 1999). Twenty items assess the frequency of depressive symptomatology in the previous week, including depressed affect, feelings of guilt and worthlessness, psychomotor retardation, loss of appetite, and sleep difficulties. Internal consistency for this sample was good (Cronbach's alpha = .85).

Self-esteem. A shortened Spanish language version of the Five-Scale Test of Self-Esteem for Children (Pope, McHale, & Craighead, 1988)--translated via a backward translation method and reduced via factor analysis by Hernandez-Guzman and Caso-Niebla (1996)--was employed to measure self-esteem. It assesses self-worth in five domains: global, academic, body, family, and social. Internal consistency = .82.

Body image. A combination of the Body scale of the Five-Scale Test of Self Esteem for Children and the Body Image scale of the Self-Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents (Petersen, 1980) was translated into Spanish via a backward translation method for use in this study. The items assess satisfaction with one's body, attractiveness, weight, and physical condition. Internal consistency = .94.

Social-emotional adjustment. Social-emotional adjustment was measured using the Psychological Maladaptive Problems scale of the Health, Lifestyles and Behavior Inventory (Sanchez-Sosa & Hernandez-Guzman, 1991). Developed for the Mexican population, it assesses various maladaptive difficulties: anxiety, somatization, motoric retardation, conduct disturbances, and aggression. Cronbach's alpha = .92.

Relationship with parents. The adolescents' perception of parents' degree of control was evaluated using the Relation with Mother and Relation with Father subscales of the Drug Risk Scale (Climent, Aragon, & Plutchick, 1989). Each subscale consists of 15 items (an additional item was incorporated) that assess how frequently each parent relates with the adolescent in various ways. Three factors have emerged for Mexican adolescents (Gonzalez-Forteza, 1992): affect, communication, and control, with internal consistencies ranging between .89 and .93 (Gonzalez-Forteza, 1996). For this sample, a factor reflecting communication regarding sexuality emerged.

Attitudes toward menarche and menstruation. In order to measure attitudes toward menarche and menstruation, a Likert-type scale was developed based on a focus group with early adolescent females, items from the Menstrual Attitudes Questionnaire (Brooks-Gunn & Ruble, 1980), and items from the Attitudes Questionnaire (Morelos Flores, 1994). Seventeen items assess feelings of pride, shame, and fear associated with menarche, and perceptions of menstruation as natural, bothersome, or shameful. A positive score reflects positive attitudes. Cronbach's alpha = .55.

Sociodemographics. Eight items assessed the marital status, educational level, and type of employment of parents, family size, and birth order of the adolescent.

RESULTS

Overall Gender Differences

Gender differences were explored using two-tailed t-tests for independent samples. Females reported greater depressive symptomatology (t = 3.2, p = .001), a more negative body image (t = 4.6, p = .000), a more positive relationship with mother (t = 3.9, p = .000), and a less positive relationship with father (t = 2.5, p = .011) than did males. There were no significant differences between females and males in terms of self-esteem or social-emotional adjustment. However, males reported greater maladjustment in the areas of conduct disturbances (t = 2.9, p = .004), aggression (t = 4.5, p = .000), psychomotor retardation (t = 2.8, p = .005), and somatization (t = 3.0, p = .003), while females reported greater maladjustment in regard to anxiety (t = 4.1, p = .000).

Pubertal Status and Gender Effects

Separate ANCOVAs were conducted to explore the effect of pubertal status (pre-post) and gender (female-male), covarying for age, on each of the dependent variables (depression, body image, self-esteem, and externalizing problems). The changes in the dependent variables were then plotted against time since puberty (prepubertal, less than six months postpubertal, between six and twelve months postpubertal, and more than one year postpubertal) for females and males.

Depression. There was a significant effect for pubertal status, F(1, 1090) = 9.0, p [less than] .01, gender, F(1, 1092) = 12.0, p = .001, and their interaction, F(1, 1092) = 7.0, p [less than] .01. There was no effect for age. Comparing the means, using the Bonferroni technique, showed that females' depressive symptomatology increased from premenarche to postmenarche (p [less than] .001), but that depression did not vary by pubertal status for males. Figure 1 illustrates how levels of depression varied with time since puberty for males and females.

Body image. Though there was no significant main effect for pubertal status, there was a main effect for gender, F(1, 1098) = 18.1, p [less than] .001, and a significant interaction between pubertal status and gender, F(1, 1098) = 8.7, p [less than] .01. There was no effect for age. Gender differences in body image emerged after puberty, when females had a more negative body image in comparison to males (p [less than].001), whereas there was no difference between prepubertal females and males. Figure 2 shows how body image varied with time since puberty for females and males.

Self-esteem. Neither pubertal status nor gender demonstrated significant main effects, though age did, F(1, 1096) = 4.2, p = .04, and the interaction between pubertal status and gender was marginally significant, F(1, 1096) = 3.5, p = .06. Females marginally, though not significantly, decreased in self-esteem, and males marginally, though not significantly, increased in self-esteem. Figure 3 shows that the gender differences in self-esteem emerged more than one year after puberty.

Externalizing problems (behavioral disturbances). First, aggression and conduct disturbance scores were combined. There was a marginal main effect for pubertal status, F(1, 1037) = 3.2, p = .07, a main effect for gender, F(1, 1037) = 18.3, p = .000, and an interaction between the two, F(1, 1037) = 6.0, p = .01. While prepubertal females were better adjusted with respect to externalizing problems than were prepubertal males (p = .000), their adjustment declined (to a marginally significant degree) from premenarche to postmenarche (p = .07). There was no significant change in externalizing problems for males. Figure 4 illustrates how adjustment varied with time since puberty for females and males.

Possible Modifying Variables

Menstrual attitudes, relationship with parents, parental level of education, and social-emotional adjustment were converted into categorical variables and entered, along with gender and pubertal status, in ANOVAs for each of the dependent variables. No significant interactions were found, although there were many significant main effects. Thus, regression equations were calculated for depression, self-esteem, and body image.

Regression analyses for depression. A simultaneous multiple regression including pubertal status, social-emotional adjustment, menstrual attitudes, maternal and paternal educational levels, and relation with mother and father (specifically, control, affect and communication regarding sexuality) was conducted for depression in females. Pubertal status was entered as a continuous variable using time since puberty (prepubertal, less than six months postpubertal, between six and twelve months postpubertal, and more than one year postpubertal). These variables explained 35% of the variance in depressive symptomatology (R = .60, [R.sup.2] = .35, p [less than] .001). The variables that significantly predicted depression were menarcheal status ([beta] = .12, p [less than] .00), social-emotional adjustment ([beta] = - .40, p [less than] .00), menstrual attitudes ([beta] = -.07, p [less than] .02), maternal affect ([beta] = -.10, p = .05), maternal communication regarding sexuality ([beta] = .18, p [less than] .00), a nd, marginally, paternal control ([beta] =.09, p = .06).

A similar regression analysis was conducted for males (menstrual attitudes was excluded). Pubertal status, social-emotional adjustment, and paternal and maternal education, control, affect, and communication regarding sexuality explained 23% of the variance in depression for males (R = .48, [R.sup.2] = .23, p [less than] .001), considerably less than that for females. Only social-emotional adjustment significantly predicted depression ([beta] = -.38, p [less than] .00), while paternal affect was marginally significant ([beta] = -.10, p = .07).

Regression analyses for body image. As with depression, a simultaneous multiple regression including pubertal status, social-emotional adjustment, menstrual attitudes, maternal and paternal educational levels, and relation with mother and with father (control, affect, and communication regarding sexuality) was conducted for body image in females. These variables explained 22% of the variance in body image (R = .47, [R.sup.2] = .22, p [less than] .001). The variables that contributed significantly to body image scores were social-emotional adjustment ([beta] = .18, p [less than] .00), menstrual attitudes ([beta] = .16, p [less than] .00), maternal educational level ([beta] = .16, p [less than] .01), and maternal affect ([beta] = .19, p [less than].01).

A similar multiple regression analysis was conducted for males (with the exception of menstrual attitudes). The independent variables explained 20% of the variance in body image for males (R = .45, [R.sup.2] = .20). The variables that contributed significantly to body image scores were social-emotional adjustment ([beta] = .25, p [less than] .001) and paternal affect ([beta] = .18, p [less than] .01).

Regression analyses for self-esteem. A simultaneous multiple regression to explore the contributions of pubertal status, social-emotional adjustment, menstrual attitudes, and paternal and maternal educational level, control, affect, and communication regarding sexuality revealed that these variables accounted for 39% of the variance in females' self-esteem (R = .62, [R.sup.2] = .39, p [less than] .001). The variables that significantly predicted self-esteem for females were social-emotional adjustment ([beta] = .32, p [less than] .001), maternal educational level ([beta] = .13, p [less than] .03), menstrual attitudes ([beta] = .09, p [less than] .02), maternal affect ([beta] = .25, p [less than] .001), paternal control ([beta] = -.11, p [less than] .03), and paternal affect ([beta] = .11, p = .03).

A similar multiple regression was computed for males (without the menstrual attitudes variable). The independent variables accounted for 31% of the variance in self-esteem scores for males (R = .56, [R.sup.2] = .31, p [less than] .001). The variables that significantly predicted self-esteem for males were social-emotional adjustment ([beta] = .25, p [less than] .001) and paternal affect ([beta] = .29, p [less than] .001), and maternal control was marginally significant ([beta] = -.09, p [less than] .07).

DISCUSSION

Results from this investigation of the changes over time in depression, body image, self-esteem, and externalizing problems contribute to our understanding of the impact of puberty. The findings replicate those of previous studies, namely that menarche does have an adverse effect on adolescent females, above and beyond the effect of age, in terms of greater depression and, marginally, a more negative body image. While prepubertal females and males reported roughly the same degree of depressive symptomatology, postpubertal females gradually and steadily increased in depression while males remained approximately the same. Females' body image showed a minimal but steady decline, while males felt better about their bodies immediately following voice change, suffered a slight drop between six and twelve months after voice change, and then rebounded more than a year post-puberty.

Previous research on the effects of puberty has mainly reported increases in female adolescents' depression and negative body image. However, the present investigation also found a relationship between menarche and externalizing problems. Postmenarcheal females became more aggressive and reported more conduct disturbances, equaling that of males.

The results did not confirm the changes in self-esteem that had previously been reported in several studies, but they did agree with findings by Davis and Katzman (1997). In the present study, self-esteem varied, though ever so slightly, with age rather than pubertal status. Small gender differences in self-esteem were observed more than one year after puberty.

Overall, it was found that the increase in depressive symptomatology, externalizing problems, and negative body image of females is gradual and linear, and becomes particularly evident six months postmenarche. In the present study, almost 26% of the females between six and twelve months postmenarche could be classified as depressed (using one standard deviation above the mean on the CES-D as the cutoff criterion), whereas only 14% of the males six to twelve months postpuberty could be similarly classified. In other words, menarche is the point at which females' well-being begins to plummet in comparison to males, and it continues to do so more than a year postmenarche.

Though the difference in depression between pre- and postmenarcheal females was considerable (one-third standard deviation), the difference in body image was minimal. The small effect of menarche on body image may be due to different evaluations of the various pubertal changes. For example, the rapid increase in body fat might be evaluated negatively by the adolescent female, whereas breast growth might be seen as a desirable occurrence. In fact, the mixed results of the studies in this area might be a reflection of the different physical changes in puberty, some of which are congruent and others incongruent with social standards of beauty. Overall, however, this study suggests that the tendency is toward a more negative general body image. Future research should examine which aspects of body image are influenced by specific pubertal changes.

The findings of this study also suggest the absence of a parallel process for males in which pubertal maturation undermines their well-being. Whereas prepubertal females and males did not differ in terms of depression, body image, or self-esteem, postpubertal females increased in depressive symptomatology and had a less positive body image postmenarche, and males reported less depression and a more positive body image. Concerning behavior problems, postpubertal males, in contrast to females, demonstrated a slight tendency toward better adjustment.

Several possible explanations are offered for the failure to find a significant relationship between pubertal status and depression, externalizing problems, or self-esteem for males. Pubertal status may not have the same adverse consequences for males as for females. Females face greater challenges in puberty, at a younger age, compared with males. These more abrupt and concrete changes are not necessarily received positively. Another explanation involves the measurement of puberty itself. Voice change, which was chosen because it occurs at a similar stage of development as menarche and because of its relative ease of identification, may be a more positive event for males compared with other physical changes. In addition, there is undoubtedly less precision in the measurement of puberty in males than in females (menarche). Males may also have been more likely to overestimate pubertal maturation. There was almost the same percentage of postpubertal males as females in the sample. Given that there was no age d ifference between females and males, and females mature roughly two years earlier than males, proportionally more postpubertal females than postpubertal males would have been expected.

This study also explored possible risk factors: social-emotional adjustment, parental level of education, menstrual attitudes, and relationship with parents (perceived control, affect, and communication regarding sexuality). No interaction effects were found; none of the variables appeared to modify the relation between menarche and depression or body image, suggesting that this transition is uniformly difficult for females. However, there were main effects of some of these variables for depression, self-esteem, and body image. For example, the females with the highest levels of depression had been postpubertal longer, were more poorly adjusted, had more negative menstrual attitudes, and perceived less positive maternal affect, greater paternal control, and more maternal communication regarding sexuality. Those with the most positive body image were better adjusted, expressed more positive menstrual attitudes, had a more highly educated mother, and perceived more positive maternal affect. Finally, those with the highest self-esteem were better adjusted, had more positive menstrual attitudes, were younger, had a more educated mother, and perceived more positive maternal affect, more positive paternal affect, and less paternal control.

In the case of males, greater adjustment and more positive paternal affect contributed to less depressive symptomatology. Being more socially and emotionally adjusted and perceiving more positive paternal affect predicted a more positive body image. Being better adjusted and perceiving more positive affect from father and less control from mother predicted more positive self-esteem in males.

It is interesting that, in terms of psychological well-being, perceived affect from the same-sex parent and perceived control from the opposite-sex parent were significant aspects of the parent-adolescent relationship. Further research should more thoroughly test these relationships.

Greater communication with regard to sexuality contributed to higher levels of depression among females. It is conjectured that the items dealing with this variable in reality assess control over sexuality instead of communication (for example, "Does your mother/father tell you that you should wait until you're an adult to have sexual relations?").

Overall, these results suggest that early adolescence is a particularly difficult time for females and that the physical changes during puberty do not similarly undermine the well-being of males. Most research has been conducted with Anglo American youths, and the present study confirmed many of the previous findings using a sample of Mexican early adolescents. Future research in this area would be greatly enhanced by the use of longitudinal methods, following the same females before and after their pubertal changes, with measurements at several points in time, ideally into early adulthood in order to examine how lasting the effects are. In addition, future gender comparisons should explore variables specific to males' response to this transition, including more precise measures of pubertal status. These comparisons will have to take into account psychological and social variables, as well as the effects of hormonal differences.

The results of the present study point to possible directions for the design and implementation of prevention and intervention programs. Such programs, aimed at both preadolescent and adolescent females and their parents, should address mother-daughter and father-daughter relationships, specifically paternal/maternal demonstrations of affect and less controlling parenting practices. Overall social-emotional adjustment, which has previously been found to be associated with parent-child relationships (Dumka, Roosa, & Jackson, 1997; Shaw, Keenan, Vondra, Delliquadri, & Giovanelli, 1997; Rapee, 1997; Sato et al., 1997; Taris & Bok, 1996), is also an important factor. Further longitudinal research is necessary to determine how best to improve adjustment prior to menarche in order to make the transition through puberty less challenging.

Coping strategies also should be investigated and incorporated into prevention and intervention programs. Coping strategies have been found to distinguish between depressed and nondepressed adolescent females (Bouteyre, 1997). Broderick (1998) studied the coping styles of early adolescents and reported that females' coping responses were more ruminative and self-focused compared to those of males. Avoidance as a form of coping has been found to be related to anxiety and depression (Gomez, 1998). Satija, Advani, and Nathawat (1997) documented more avoidance and the use of fewer problem solving strategies in depressed subjects. Thus, future research should explore whether interventions aimed at improving social skills, coping strategies, and assertiveness might prevent early adolescent females from experiencing increases in depression and negative body image. Finding ways to ease the pubertal transition in early adolescence may help keep more serious and related disturbances from arising in later adolescence a nd adulthood, such as clinical depression, anorexia and bulimia, and sub stance abuse.

This research was supported in part by the Program for Support to Research and Innovative Technology Projects--National University of Mexico. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Raquel Tinajero in collecting and entering the data, and Emilio Sacristan in processing the data.

Laura Hernandez-Guzman, School of Psychology, National Autonomous University of Mexico.

Reprint requests to Coma Benjet, Division of Epidemiological and Psychosocial Research, National Institute of Psychiatry, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco 101, Mexico City, 14370 Mexico. Electronic mail may be sent to cbenjet@imp.edu.mx.

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Table 1. Distribution of Pubertal Status by Sex
Pubertal Status Females Males
Prepubertal 319 (55.7%) 259 (49.8%)
Less than 6 months postpubertal 89 (15.5%) 156 (30.0%)
Between 6 and 12 months postpubertal 73 (12.7%) 44 (8.5%)
More than 1 year postpubertal 92 (16.1%) 61 (11.7%)

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