VICTIMIZATION AND DELINQUENCY AMONG CANADIAN YOUTH.

Paetsch, Joanne J. ; Bertrand, Lorne D.

There has been growing concern about youth crime and violence. Young people are generally viewed by the public as committing more crimes now than in the past. While official crime statistics do indicate an increase in charge rates and court cases, it is unclear whether these are indicative of increased youth crime or are a result of greater societal sensitivity to youth violence and more aggressive police practices (Frank, 1992).

Few studies have examined the extent of reported and unreported violence and other criminal incidents involving Canadian youth. Ryan, Mathews, and Banner (1993) investigated the extent of violent offenses committed by students in grades 6, 7, 8, and 9 in two schools in Ontario. They found that between two-thirds and three-quarters of the students had either committed an act of violence or knew someone who did. Students in grade 8 at both schools reported the highest rates of violent offenses. Further, female students were found to be just as likely (and sometimes more likely) to commit violent offenses as were male students, with the exception of sexual violence.

Esbensen and Huizinga (1991) examined the correlates of delinquency using a longitudinal survey of 11-, 13-, and 15-year-olds in the United States. The self-report data indicated that, at least once in the past year, 36% of the youth had used alcohol, 22.5% had engaged in minor assault, 18% had committed minor theft (less than $50), 13% had used marijuana, and 7.5% had engaged in felony assault (e.g., using a weapon with the intention of seriously hurting someone). Overall, 51% of the youth had engaged in some form of delinquency at least once in the past year.

Data from the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) in Canada from 1985 to 1991 revealed that the victims of violent crimes by youth (12 to 17 years of age) tended to be other youth (Frank, 1992). This is consistent with findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey conducted in the United States from 1985 to 1988. Although youth under age 20 made up only 14% of the survey population, they accounted for 30% of the violent crime victims (Allen-Hagen & Sickmund, 1993). It was found that approximately 67 per 1,000 teenagers were victimized, as compared with 26 per 1,000 persons aged 20 or older. Further, teenagers were more likely to be victimized at school than elsewhere.

Finkelhor and Dziuba-Leatherman (1994), investigating nonfamily assault, family assault, kidnapping, sexual assault, and violence to the genitals, reported rates of violence against children (ages 10-16) that far exceeded government statistics. One-quarter of the children surveyed indicated being victimized in the past year, one-third reported attempted or completed victimization in the past year, and over one-half reported attempted or completed victimization at some time in their lives.

Research in Canada and the United States has examined the relationships between gender, age, and victimization. In Canada, for example, Ryan, Mathews, and Banner (1993) found that, of students in grades 6-9, those in grade 8 reported the lowest rates of victimization. Male and female students tended to be victims of different types of violent crime; males were more likely to be victims of physical violence, and females were more likely to be victims of sexual assault and less physically violent crimes.

A study of 1,272 high school students in the United States found that males were more likely to be victimized than were females, particularly in terms of violence-related crimes (Baker, Mednick, & Carothers, 1989). Older high school students (age 17 and above) had higher victimization rates than did younger high school students (under 17) for property-related crimes, but interestingly no significant differences were found for violence-related crimes.

Baker et al. (1989) hypothesized that since males are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than are females, they are more likely to associate with delinquents and thus be victimized themselves. This position has been supported by a longitudinal investigation of the correlates of delinquency in a large midwestern city in the United States (Esbensen & Huizinga, 1991). It was found that males had higher lifetime and past-year victimization rates than did females for both personal and property crimes. Further, 11-year-olds reported less lifetime and past-year victimization rates than did 13- and 15-year-olds. Most importantly, youth who reported no involvement in delinquent behavior reported the lowest levels of victimization, particularly with respect to personal crimes.

The present study examined the extent of victimization in the past year among junior and senior high school students in a large Canadian city. Delinquency was also examined, including the incidence of having a weapon at school. Finally, relationships between victimization, delinquency, and weapon possession were explored. It should be noted that, while all forms of victimization and delinquency reported here might not be considered criminal acts in all contexts (e.g., consensual fighting), the majority of behaviors assessed are clearly illegal.

METHOD

Sample

The data were obtained from a study of youth crime and violence conducted by the Canadian Research Institute for Law and the Family (Smith, Bertrand, Arnold, & Hornick, 1995). One component of that study involved a youth violence survey administered to junior and senior high school students. The sample of 962 students was drawn from 14 junior high schools and 6 senior high schools in various parts of a large Canadian city (Calgary, Alberta) that corresponded to low-, medium-, and high-crime areas.

The crime areas were identified using Calgary Police Service's crime report data. Since no consistent results were obtained across crime areas, the data were not analyzed separately by area. Once schools within each crime area were selected, the local school boards selected a random sample of students, stratified by age. Consent was then obtained from both students and their parent(s) or guardian(s).

Of the students surveyed, 51% were male and 49% were female. There was a relatively even proportion of students in grades 7 through 11, but a smaller proportion of students in grade 12. Students ranged in age from 12 to 18 years. They were equally distributed across the low-, medium-, and high-crime areas of the city, and 86% indicated that they were born in Canada.

Measures

Students were administered a questionnaire in their schools. They were informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain anonymous. Questionnaire items dealt with the extent to which students had been victimized in a variety of ways, both at school and elsewhere, as well as the extent to which they had engaged in delinquent behaviors within the past year.

To measure the extent of victimization, students were asked to indicate whether any of the following had happened to them at least once in the past year: (a) something of theirs was damaged on purpose; (b) something was stolen; (c) something was taken by force or threat; (d) someone had threatened to hurt them; (e) someone had slapped, punched, or kicked them; (f) someone had threatened them with a weapon; (g) they had been attacked by a group or gang; (h) someone had exposed himself or herself to them; and (i) someone had touched them in a sexual way against their will. To measure the extent of delinquency, students were asked to indicate whether they had engaged in the following property-related behaviors within the past year: (a) damaged someone's property on purpose; (b) stolen less than $50; (c) stolen more than $50; (d) stolen with friends; (e) broken into a house; and (f) stolen a car or motorcycle. They were also asked whether they had engaged in the following violence-related behaviors: (a) taken something by force or threat; (b) threatened to hurt someone; (c) slapped, punched, or kicked someone; (d) threatened someone with a weapon; (e) fought with a group of friends; and (f) touched someone in a sexual way against his or her will. Results were analyzed using the chi-square test of association.

RESULTS

Self-Reported Victimization

Table 1 presents the incidence of self-reported victimization while at school, by gender, grade, and total sample. The overall incidence of [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] victimization at school was high, with 81.5% of the students reporting that they had been victimized at least once within the past year. The most prevalent type of victimization was having something stolen (55.6% of the total sample), followed by having something damaged on purpose (43.6%) and being threatened (42.3%). The least prevalent type of victimization was being attacked by a group or gang (6.0%), followed by being threatened with a weapon (8.2%) and someone exposing himself or herself (14.2%).

For all types of victimization except being touched in a sexual way against one's will, males were more likely to report being victimized at school than were females. In all but two cases - having something stolen and having someone expose himself or herself - this difference was statistically significant. For example, 50.2% of the male students reported having something damaged on purpose, compared with 36.9% of the female students. Likewise, 47.5% of the males reported being slapped, punched, or kicked, compared with 26.6% of the females.

Across grade levels, the general pattern that emerged for all types of victimization at school was that younger students reported more victimization than did older students. For example, 62.9% of the students in grade 7 reported having something stolen, compared with 56.3% in grade 9 and 34.1% in grade 12. Similarly, 49.0% of the students in grade 7 reported being slapped, punched, or kicked, compared with 25.6% in grade 10 and 17.6% in grade 12.

Table 2 presents the incidence of self-reported victimization while not at school, by gender, grade, and total sample. The overall incidence of victimization while not at school was high, with 69.0% of the students reporting that they had been victimized at least once in the past year. The most prevalent type of victimization was having something stolen (38.5% of the sample), followed by being threatened (31.0%) and having something damaged on purpose (30.1%). The least prevalent type of victimization was being attacked by a group or gang (7.2%), followed by having something taken by force or threat (11.0%) and being threatened with a weapon (12.5%).

Similar to the pattern found for specific types of victimization at school, males were more likely to report being victimized than were females, with two exceptions - having someone expose himself or herself and being touched in a sexual way against one's will. For example, 17.7% of the male students reported being threatened with a weapon, compared with 7.2% of the female students. Similarly, 10.9% of the males reported being attacked by a group or gang, compared with 3.4% of the females. However, 23.8% of the females reported being touched in a sexual way against one's will, compared with 5.1% of the males.

There was no statistically significant pattern of differences between grade levels for the various types of victimization while not at school.

[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 2 OMITTED]

Self-Reported Delinquency

The results for self-reported delinquency are presented in Table 3 (property-related behaviors) and Table 4 (violence-related behaviors). Overall, 56.2% of the students reported engaging in at least one delinquent behavior within the past year; 39.4% of the students reported that they had engaged in at least one type of property offense, and 45.6% indicated that they had engaged in at least one violent behavior. The most prevalent types of delinquent behavior that students reported committing within the past year were slapping, punching, or kicking someone (35.8%), stealing less than $50 (30.7%), and threatening to hurt someone (28.5%). The least prevalent delinquent behaviors were touching someone sexually against their will (2.0%), breaking into a house (4.2%), and threatening someone with a weapon (7.2%).

Self-reported delinquency within the past year was related to gender. Across all types of delinquency except one, male students were significantly more likely to report having committed the behavior than were female students. For example, in terms of property-related offenses, 24.7% of the males reported having damaged someone's property on purpose, compared with 9.1% of the females; likewise, 14.4% of the males reported stealing more than $50, compared with 4.2% of the females (see Table 3). For violence-related offenses, 33.3% of the males reported threatening to hurt someone, compared with 23.6% of the females, and 10.5% of the males reported threatening someone with a weapon, compared with 3.8% of the females (see Table 4).

Grade level was also significantly related to self-reported delinquency for most types of behavior. Surprisingly, however, students in grade 9 reported higher levels of delinquency than did students in other grades. For example, 26.9% of the students in grade 9 reported having damaged someone's property on purpose within the past year, compared with 18.1% of the students in grade 8 and 15.7% of those in grade 10 (see Table 3). Similarly, 50.0% of the students in grade 9 reported slapping, punching, or kicking someone within the past year, compared with 36.3% of the students in grade 8 and 34.9% of those in grade 10 (see Table 4).

Prevalence of Weapons

Students were asked to indicate whether they had carried various types of weapons at school or had kept them in their lockers at least once within the past year. The results are presented in Table 5; overall, 28% of the students reported weapon possession at school. The most common weapons were illegal knives (15.9%), homemade weapons (11.6%), and clubs or bats (9.1%). Less prevalent were handguns (2.6%), pellet guns (5.1%), and replicas (6.5%).

[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 3 OMITTED]

[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 4 OMITTED]

[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 5 OMITTED]

Having a weapon at school within the past year was significantly related to gender. Male students were more likely to report having all types of weapons at school than were female students. For example, 24.3% of the males reported possessing an illegal knife, compared with 7.4% of the females. Likewise, 19.8% of the males reported having a homemade weapon at school, compared with 3.4% of the females, and 4.5% of the males reported possessing a handgun, compared with 0.6% of the females.

Grade level was significantly related to possession of three types of weapons: illegal knives, homemade weapons, and clubs or bats. In each of these cases, students in grades 9 and 11 were more likely to report carrying the weapon at school or keeping it in their lockers than were students in virtually all the other grades.

Relationship Between Victimization and Delinquency

Analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between self-reported victimization and self-reported delinquency (see Table 6). For victimization both in and out of school, students who reported a moderate/high level of delinquency were more likely to report a moderate/high level of victimization (p [less than] .001), and students who reported no delinquency were more likely to report no victimization (p [less than] .001).

Of the students who reported a moderate/high level of delinquency, 50.6% reported a moderate/high level of victimization at school, 25.3% reported a low level, and 19.1% reported no victimization. Further, of the students who reported no delinquency, 60.1% reported no victimization at school, 47.1% reported low victimization, and 25.1% reported moderate/high victimization.

This pattern was duplicated for victimization while not at school. Of the students who reported a moderate/high level of delinquency, 52.2% reported a moderate/high level of victimization, 28.0% reported a low level, and 13.4% reported no victimization. Further, of the students who reported no delinquency, 66.1% reported no victimization, 44.5% reported low victimization, and 19.7% reported moderate/high victimization.

The relationship between victimization and having a weapon at school within the past year is presented in Table 7. Students who reported weapon possession were more likely to report higher levels of victimization, both at school (p [less than] .001) and while not at school (p [less than] .001).

Of the students who reported having a weapon at school, 49.0% reported a moderate/high level of victimization at school, 22.1% reported a low level, and 15.7% reported no Victimization. Similarly, 47.1% of the students who reported having a weapon at school reported a moderate/high level of victimization while not at school, compared with 24.0% reporting a low level and 14.4% reporting no victimization.

TABLE 6

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VICTIMIZATION AND DELINQUENCY(1)

 Extent of Delinquency(2)

Extent of Victimization Moderate/High Low None
 n % n % n %

At School(3)
Moderate/High (n = 251) 127 50.6 61 24.3 63 25.1

Low (n = 533) 135 25.3 147 27.6 251 47.1

None (n = 178) 34 19.1 37 20.8 107 60.1

Not at School(4)
Moderate/High (n = 289) 151 52.2 81 28.0 57 19.7

Low (n = 375) 105 28.0 103 27.5 167 44.5

None (n = 298) 40 13.4 61 20.5 197 66.1

1 N = 962.

2 Students who engaged in three or more of the twelve delinquent
behaviors within the past year were classified as moderate/high;
students who engaged in one or two delinquent behaviors within the
past year were classified as low.

3 Students who were victimized at school four or more times within
the past year were classified as moderate/high; students who were
victimized one to three times within the past year were classified
as low.

4 Victimization while not at school was not as prevalent as
victimization at school. Therefore, students who were victimized
three or more times within the past year were classified as
moderate/high; students who were victimized one or two times within
the past year were classified as low.

Table 8 shows the relationship between self-reported delinquency and having a weapon at school within the past year. As expected, of the students who reported having a weapon at school, 57.8% reported a moderate/high level of delinquency, 20.4% reported a low level, and 11.4% reported no delinquency.

DISCUSSION

This study examined the extent of, and relationship between, self-reported victimization and delinquency among a sample of junior and senior high school students in Canada. Victimization in the past year was found to be high, both while the students were at school (81.5%) and not at school (69.0%). The finding that the rates for most types of victimization were higher at school is consistent with the literature, which suggests that teenagers are more likely to be victimized there than while not at school (Allen-Hagen & Sickmund, 1993).

TABLE 7

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VICTIMIZATION AND HAVING A WEAPON AT SCHOOL(1)

 Weapon at School

Extent of Victimization Yes No
 n % n %

At School(2)
Moderate/High (n = 251) 123 49.0 128 51.0

Low (n = 533) 118 22.1 415 77.9

None (n = 178) 28 15.7 150 84.3

Not at School(3)
Moderate/High (n = 289) 136 47.1 153 52.9

Low (n = 375) 90 24.0 285 76.0

None (n = 298) 43 14.4 255 85.6

1 N = 962.

2 Students who were victimized at school four or more times within
the past year were classified as moderate/high; students who were
victimized one to three times within the past year were classified
as low.

3 Victimization while not at school was not as prevalent as
victimization at school. Therefore, students who were victimized
three or more times within the past year were classified as
moderate/high; students who were victimized one or two times within
the past year were classified as low.

The finding that males were more likely to report being victimized than were females is also consistent with the literature (Baker et al., 1989; Esbensen & Huizinga, 1991). Except for sexual victimization, males reported higher rates than did females, both in and out of school.

The relationship between grade level and victimization is not entirely clear. In general, younger students reported higher victimization rates while at school than did older students. No significant relationships were found between grade level and victimization while not at school. The literature on the relationship between age and victimization is also not clear. Esbensen and Huizinga (1991) found that 11-year-olds reported lower victimization rates than did 13- and 15-year-olds. Baker et al. (1989) found that high school students aged 17 and above had higher victimization rates than did those under the age of 17. Both of these studies had smaller (and different) age ranges than the present study, which limits comparability. It may be that junior high school students (approximately ages 12 to 15) experience more victimization at school than do elementary school students (under age 12) and senior high school students (over age 15). Further research is necessary to clarify the relationship between grade level and victimization.

TABLE 8

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DELINQUENCY AND HAVING A WEAPON AT SCHOOL(1)

 Weapon at School

Extent of Delinquency(2) Yes No
 n % n %

Moderate/High (n = 296) 171 57.8 125 42.2
Low (n = 245) 50 20.4 195 79.6
None (n = 421) 48 11.4 373 88.6

1 N = 962.

2 Students who engaged in three or more of the twelve delinquent
behaviors within the past year were classified as moderate/high;
students who engaged in one or two delinquent behaviors within the
past year were classified as low.

Over half of the sample (i.e., 56.2%) reported engaging in some form of delinquent behavior within the past year. This is slightly higher than the delinquency rate (51%) found by Esbensen and Huizinga (1991), although a difference would be expected given that an older sample was used in the present study, and the types of delinquent behavior assessed were not identical.

Like previous research (Baker et al., 1989; Esbensen & Huizinga, 1991), this study found that males, as compared with females, were more likely to report engaging in all types of delinquent behavior. Interestingly, it was also found that students in grade 9 were more likely to report delinquent behaviors than were students in other grades. This finding could help explain why junior high school students report higher victimization rates than do senior high school students, and suggests where delinquency prevention efforts could best be implemented.

Consistent with research conducted in the United States (Baker et al., 1989; Esbensen & Huizinga, 1991), this study found that students who reported a high level of delinquency, both while at school and not at school, were more likely to report a high level of victimization, and students who reported no delinquency were more likely to report no victimization. Baker et al. (1989) suggest that since males are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than are females, they are more likely to associate with delinquents and thus be victimized themselves. The findings of the present study lend support to this hypothesis. However, since the study was cross-sectional in design, causality cannot be determined. For example, students who reported having a weapon at school were more likely to report higher levels of victimization. While it is possible that these students were engaging in delinquent behavior and were victimized by their delinquent friends, it is also possible that these students were victimized and had a weapon at school for protection. Indeed, having been a victim of a serious violent crime was found to be the strongest predictor of assaultive violence among a cohort of violent offenders (American Psychological Association, 1993).

Overall, the findings are troublesome. Students reported high levels of delinquency, as well as high levels of victimization. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether these rates are increasing or decreasing in Canada. Further research is also needed to determine whether junior high school is a particularly difficult time for students in terms of both delinquency and victimization. Perhaps delinquency prevention efforts need to be aimed at younger students.

The relationship between victimization and delinquency is also important, because it suggests that if delinquency can be reduced, victimization rates will also decrease. Longitudinal research to identify the correlates of victimization and delinquency could ultimately help efforts to reduce violence and other crimes among youth.

REFERENCES

Allen-Hagen, B., & Sickmund, M. (1993). Juveniles and violence: Juvenile offending and victimization. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Fact Sheet No. 3. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice.

American Psychological Association. (1993). Violence and youth: Psychology's response. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Baker, R. L., Mednick, B. R., & Carothers, L. (1989). Association of age, gender, and ethnicity with juvenile victimization in and out of school. Youth and Society, 20, 320-341.

Esbensen, F., & Huizinga, D. (1991). Juvenile victimization and delinquency. Youth and Society, 23, 202-228.

Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Children as victims of violence. Paediatrics, 84(4), 413-420.

Frank, J. (1992). Violent youth crime. Canadian Social Trends, Autumn, 2-9.

Ryan, C., Mathews, F., & Banner, J. (1993). Student perceptions of violence: Summary of preliminary findings. Toronto: Toronto Youth Services.

Smith, R. B., Bertrand, L. D., Arnold, B. L., & Hornick, J. P. (1995). A study of the level and nature of youth crime and violence in Calgary. Calgary: Calgary Police Service.

This article is based on data from a study by the Canadian Research Institute for Law and the Family, conducted for the Calgary Police Service, with funding from Solicitor General Canada (see Smith, Bertrand, Arnold, & Hornick, 1995).

Lorne D. Bertrand, Ph.D., Senior Research Associate, Canadian Research Institute for Law and the Family, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Norton.

Esman, A. (19