A review of the interrlationship among management, information technology, and in-house end-user: empirical propositions.

Alshare, Khaled

BACKGROUND

Information Technology is one of the most powerful innovations in history that affects our way of life, thus any investigation shedding light on such an important issue is worthwhile (Montealagre, 1999). In addition to that, IT has radically altered the way many industries conduct their business (Ansel & Dyer, 1999). Moreover, IT represents about half of all capital investment on a global basis (Martinsons & Chong, 1999). IT is one of the top industries worldwide. More importantly, it is helping countries and companies of all sizes reach their strategic goals (World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA 1998)). IT represents the business of the future and communities realize that the most vital economies of the 21st Century will be predominately led by IT businesses (World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA 1998)). As a result, many studies have focused on examining different aspects of IT. For example, few of those studies have examined the determinants of IT adoption and usage by employees (Mathieson, 1991, Moore & Benbasat, 1991). Other studies have investigated the relationship between end-users' attitude and perceptions and the actual use of IT (Ajzen & Madden, 1986, Al-Khaldi & Wallace, 1999, Davis, 1989, Lin & Shao, 2000, Ozer, 2001). On the other hand, a few studies have discussed the process that influences the acceptance of IT (Agarwal & Prasal, 1999, Rogers, 1995).

In a business community, it is observed that the interaction between humans and machines influence the future of a business. Among the most important aspects of a business is the use of information technology (IT) and its effect on human behavior, which ultimately directs the productivity of employees. The use of IT has definitely changed people's lives. The changes extend to almost every segment of one's daily life, especially human behavior, which can have a significant impact on the business environment. Implementing any type of IT definitely has an effect on employees; thus, management should study it and adjust the various parameters involved. There is also a need for continuous monitoring of the implications of the social impacts of IT. New technology can be successfully implemented only if it is acceptable to end-users.

The effect of IT on end-user productivity has been investigated in depth by many researchers. These types of studies have been known in the literature as "productivity paradox" (Brynjolfsson 1993, McCune 1998, Strassmann, 1999). A major new study of the world's information communication technology (ICT) spending reveals that the global high tech industry surged to over $2.1 trillion in 1999, and it is expected to surpass $3 trillion in 2003 (WITSA, 2000). North America as a region continues to lead the world in overall ICT spending, which reached $796 billion in 1999 (WITSA, 2000). Businesses in America spent more than $2 billion a year on information technology (McCune 1998). Yet the question that still remains unanswered is does this spending of information technology payoff in the form of increased productivity? The answer might vary because it depends on many factors such as the type of industry that has been investigated, the method in which productivity is measured, and model specifications. Many of these studies have concluded that the reward from IT investments is inadequate due to the following: (1) there is too much "technology for technology's sake," (2) relations between IT users and IT specialists are poor, and (3) system designers do not consider users' preference and work habits (Bensaou & Earl 1998, Mallalieu, Harvey, & Hardy 1999, Strassmann, 1997). On the other hand, other researchers have reached a different conclusion that IT has a positive impact on productivity (Brynjolfsson & Hitt 1998).

The implication of the above discussion is that a company should think twice before purchasing the latest in technology (McCune 1998). Since investment in IT usually requires a large amount of capital, it should be appropriately utilized by end-users so it might increase their productivity and effectiveness in decision making and other areas. However, motivation of end-users to utilize IT remains a significant problem for organizational managers (Bhattacherjee, 1998). Since IT adoption and usage are critical prerequisites for obtaining the productivity benefits that have been promised by IT, management should be aware of end-users' perception of new IT prior to adoption and post-adoption (Karahanna, Detmar & Chervany 1999). A review of IT implementation research indicates that end-users' utilization of IT depends not only on their beliefs, attitudes, and intentions, but also on management strategies, policies, and actions (Back & Moreau 2001, Bloodgood & Salisbury 2001, Ives & Olson 1984, Leonard-Barton & Deschamps 1988). Despite the fact that many studies have examined the effects of individual variables (e.g., beliefs, attitudes) and managerial variable (e.g., management support), very little attention has been devoted to the interaction among management, IT, and end-users.

A complete understanding of IT implementation requires an integration of management, IT, and end-users' perspectives with a common framework. This paper addresses this issue by studying the relationship among the three components. The general research question that guided this paper is "what is the framework that can help keeping the relationship among management, information technology, and end-users in balance?" Even though, the paper does not have an empirical data to support its propositions, it identifies many "problems" for general management attention. These identified problems were based on both personal interviews with managers and existing literature. Moreover, the research presented here also has practical implications, through the proposed propositions, for managers responsible for making decisions regarding the implementation of a new IT by providing the HOW component (the solutions). Moreover, normative guidelines are provided after the discussion of each set of the proposed propositions.

The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a discussion of preparing end-users for a successful implementation of a new IT. Section 3 presents the social effects of IT on the end-users' behavior in the workplace. Section 4 explains the relationship between end-users and IT. Conclusions and suggestions for future work are discussed in Section 5.

PREPARING END-USERS FOR A SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF A NEW IT

The organization is an open system that interacts with its environment. End-users, as part of the organization body, interact with their internal and external environment. IT usage typically requires end-users to spend effort in overcoming usage barriers, such as learning curves and social inertia and may therefore be resisted by end-users. The field of human engineering has suggested that ease of use is the primary factor for end-users' acceptance of IT (Bradley 1998, Karahanna & Straub 1999). However, one of the key factors that may influence the acceptance of new IT is organizational climate (culture) (Fink 1998, Prager & Overholt 1994, Shadur, Kienzle & Rodwell 1999). Moreover, organizational culture is found to be the most significant factor in the adoption of IT (Hasan & Ditsa 1999, Tolsby 1998). It is worth mentioning that the factors that influence IT adoption are the same for both developed and developing countries (Dasgupta et al., 1999). Management' awareness of end-users' attitudes to new technology can help in predicting and controlling end users' resistance to change. A successful organization knows how to make a positive impact on end-user attitude. For example, this can be accomplished by providing them either with incentives (e.g., recognition, praise, and monetary reward) for IT use or penalties (demotion) for non-use (Bhattacherjee 1998).

Major barriers to rapid implementation of IT seems to be end-users' acceptance of the new IT and managerial ability to overcome technological complexities (Mahmoud & Rice 1998). The adoption of new technology takes place gradually but progressively through a given course of management actions (Montealagre 1999). The process of IT adoption and use is a vital factor in realizing the benefits of IT. Karahanna, Detmar, and Chervany (1999) pointed out the importance of evaluating the sequence of activities that lead to the initial adoption of IT and the consequence that follows that adoption. The authors provided the answers for the following questions regarding the usage of IT: "Do employees change their attitudes and beliefs over time?" and "Is there any difference between employees who adopt and employees who actually use IT?" It is found that potential adopters' intention to adopt is determined by normative pressure (perceptions of usefulness and ease of use), whereas users' intention is determined by attitudes (belief of usefulness and perceptions of image enhancement (Karahanna, Detmar, & Chervany 1999).

Humans have the capability to adapt to any kind of change if it comes in a proper way. The need for changing any type of activity is always a strong reason for its adoption. Once a person realizes the importance of a new tool, he or she will work harder to acquire it. For example, if a company uses e-mail for memos and disseminating information, then every employee will learn how to use e-mail. The fact that this type of IT is important for improving employee performance will create the desire to change. Thus, introduction of any change should come from a personal point of view: why and "what is in it for me?" A successful organization anticipates changes rather than reacts to them. Generally speaking, if employees have the opportunity to anticipate the way in which their work will change, they will alter their behavior to match the new realities (Crabb 1993). The personality traits of employees, which are shaped by genetic and experience factors, affect the employees' behavior in an organization. Management's acknowledgment of some dimensions of the personality traits, such as psychological needs, cognitive abilities, and interpersonal styles, will enable it to influence and predict employees' behavior (Myers et al., 1993). The dimensions of personality traits provide management with valuable information about end-users, such as open-versus-closed minds or risk-taker-versus-risk-avoider; so management might have a better understanding of employees' psychological needs. In general, people change their attitude by learning. Adequate training and gradual integration of necessary knowledge make a hard job easier. These two concepts, change and learning, are essential for management to make a smooth transition from an old to a new technology. Any new IT creates a new set of behaviors between the users and the system, on one side, and between the individuals themselves, on the other side. Therefore, it is management's responsibility to identify what new behaviors are required as a result of new technology (Crabb 1993).

A notable study by Bhattacherjee (1998) addresses the questions of why and how management can influence its employees to use new IT. In that study, the author examines managerial incentives and controls that are linked to IT usage using a Principal Agent Model (PAM). The Principal-Agent-Model (PAM) describes the behavior of two parties involved in a business relationship in which the payoffs of one party (the principal) depend on the actions of the other (the agent). The agent (end-users) may act in a manner that is inconsistent with principal's (management) interest, resulting in an agency problem. The existence of such a problem might be for different reasons, such as management's inability to accurately predict end-users behaviors or management and end-users' differences in attitudes toward new IT. For example, management acquires IT to achieve organizational benefits (e.g., profits, productivity) and wants end-users to use the IT appropriately so that their goals are achieved (Leonard-Barton & Deschamps 1988). On the other hand, end-users value their individual benefits (e.g., career achievement, leisure) over management goals (Francik et al., 1991). As a result, the conflict of interests exist. One solution to this problem is that management could have a mechanism of incentives that would minimize the costs of motivating, monitoring and ensuring the end-users commitment.

Managers should be aware of end-users' perception of the new technology before the implementation process occurs and during the IT development process. Moreover, a successful management tracks the changes in end-user behavior after the implementation of a new IT. If the end-users feel comfortable with the new technology, they will use it in an effective manner. Management can influence end-users' attitude regarding new technology by establishing values and norms in the organization. The organization's culture plays a major role in unifying end-users' behavior, so in the long run, management can anticipate end-users' reaction to new technology. To evaluate and predict end-users' behavior, management could examine end-users' past behavior in similar situations to understand patterns. The above ideas rise to the following propositions:

P1: Developing a positive attitude toward any new IT is negatively
 associated with end-users' resistance to change

P2: Tracing the changes in end-user behavior is positively associated
 with acceptance and a successful implementation of new IT.

P3: Management's recognition of end-user personality and behavior is
 positively associated with accommodation of any changes due to
 implementation of new IT.

P4: There is a positive correlation between monitoring the end users'
 behavior during the IT development life cycle and the success of
 implementation of new IT.

A positive attitude by the end-users toward a new IT could be materialized by establishing incentives and training programs, acknowledging the end-users personality traits, studying the past history of the end-users regarding their attitude toward a new IT and creating a profile for each end-user for future assignments. Moreover, a supportive management style, a clear expectation statement for the end-users, a unified culture tradition, acknowledging personal traits, studying the past experiences of the end-users, and examining the end-users behavior before and after the implementation process could help management in achieving the above premises. In addition to that, management might utilize both "use-case model" and prototyping techniques for studying the changes in the end-users behavior. For example, managers could utilize use-case model by making the end-users work under different situations or scenarios and then record their reactions and behaviors. Management can affect the end-users behavior toward a new IT in many ways. For example, training the end-users to be open minded and risk takers to accept new challenges. The use of "use-case model" through workshops also enables management to prepare the end-users for a new IT. The end-user involvement in the process of implementing IT through effective communication systems could gradually lead to make the necessary changes in the end-users behavior (Schwalbe, 2002). In addition to that, a good technical support system helps and encourages the end-users to make the necessary changes in their behavior.

THE SOCIAL EFFECTS OF IT ON END-USERS' BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE

IT has extended its effect to every aspect of the employees' lives. The area most affected by IT is communication. New channels are established for fast, less-expensive, and more-inclusive communication. As a result, when employees have a better understanding of their responsibility, they might be more cooperative. There is an assumption held by many academia and managers that if employees are adequately informed about matters that concern them (e.g., using new IT) and they are allowed to make decisions relevant to their work, then there will be benefits for both managers and employees. On the other hand, if employees are not given sufficient information, then it is most likely that employees would not be able to carry out their responsibilities efficiently (Shadur, Kienzle & Rodwell 1999). Moreover, an effective management style takes into account the way end-users receive its messages, because individual employees interpret messages differently. The failure or the misuse of IT occurs when managers are unclear about the expectations they have of their employees. They either narrow their focus and expect too little from employees, or they fail to define the new behaviors they expect once IT is implemented.

With the new IT communication, privacy becomes a concern for each participant. In many cases people have to pay a social price for new technology, that is, to sacrifice simplicity and sense of community. The privacy issue becomes the cornerstone not only for American people but also for the world at large. IT could be used to monitor and track what people are doing. Examples include how many keystrokes to enter per minute, how many calls they handle per hour, and whether their time online is spent at financial figures or bar figures (Greengard 1999). There is strong evidence that links electronic performance monitoring (EPM) with increased stress for employees. In their study, Aiello and Kolb (1995) found that monitored workers felt electronic observation made their jobs more stressful. This could lead to a reduction of job satisfaction, an increase of social isolation, and an increase in the perception that generating quantity is more important than producing quality work. Continuous monitoring may also reduce the opportunity for employees to socialize at work. This leads to the question of what happens when employees become physically and socially isolated from one another. However, management should be aware that if the workplace is full of such activity, then it is not only that the productivity of the employees might be negatively affected but also it might cause employees to leave the company. Privacy in the workplace is a very complex issue which includes management, end-users, IT, and legal issues, among others. However, a clear written privacy policy is a good start (Greengard 1999).

The workplace will not be restricted to any geographic constraint. According to International Telework Association & Council (ITAC) statistics, there were approximately 19.6 million teleworkers in the U.S. in 1999 and the number is growing at the rate of about 10% per year (Baffour & Betsey 2000). Moreover, the number of companies who offer telework options is growing in that as many as 64% of American companies allow employees to participate in some form of telework (Van Horn & Storen 2000). People can live anywhere, manage their jobs from home, and have more time to share with their families. Telework indeed might provide parents with more time to spend with their children, but is it focused time? Galinsky and Kim (2000) reported that the children whose fathers telework are more likely to report that their fathers have hard time focusing on them when they are together than children whose fathers do not telework. These children are also more likely to feel that their fathers work too much and place greater importance on their jobs than family life. In addition to that, they are more likely to feel that their fathers' work interferes with how they parent.

Telecommuting "virtual work" has brought new challenges that need to be managed, such as the challenge of trust between management and employees and the issue of loss of control from management's perspective. To address such concerns, management may need to change its style of operation in order to accommodate new methods of communication and interaction with employees. For example, management needs to have more trust and encouragement of employees so they can perform their tasks more efficiently (Harrington & Ruppel 1999, Venkatraman, Tanriverdi & Stokke 1999). As a result, management's role has evolved from that of "enforcement" to that of "coaching" or "facilitating" (Pratt 2000). Another concern for management in the teleworking environment is the compensation package and the productivity measurement. One option could be that management might determine workload in terms of results or outcomes rather than number of hours (Baffour & Betsey 2000).

IT in the workplace allows employees more time to communicate with each other using tools such as e-mail and voice mail. Teleworking has made the role of the offices as places for people to communicate and socialize with their colleagues. However, a satellite network enables employees to feel a sense of community with their peers. In a sense, they have the feeling that they are in the same room. Such an effect strengthens the relationship between management and subordinates due to ease of communication access (Malone 1994). IT largely affects the workplace design in such a way that employees change the way in which they work. They have more autonomy, less dependency, but more interdependency. IT makes it easy to communicate with people from different cultures, since there is no need for personal interaction. IT eliminates some cultural barriers, such as gestures. Today, it is not necessary to interact with customers to conduct business; there is no need for face-to-face communication (electronic-commerce and mobile-commerce).

IT gives more freedom to employees in the sense that they can do the job easier, faster, and more efficiently. For example, written correspondence requires a supervisor's approval but electronic notes do not (Fulk & Boyd 1991). On the other hand, IT often overloads employees with information because it produces a large volume, which can exceed the employees' capability to handle. It is worthy to mention that the problems inherent in any information systems, such as navigation and cognitive overload, are multiplied on the Internet (Brandt 1997). The consequences of information overload might be job stress, tension, and low performance. However, when employees know how to use IT, they can reduce information overload by scanning, filtering, maintaining, and disseminating the information. In summing the following propositions are suggested:

P5: An effective communication environment positively affects the
 relationship between management and end-users.

P6: Understanding the social effect of IT is positively associated
 with end-users' performance.

An effective communication system might include internal newsletters, formal and informal meetings, social parties, and a reliable and open feedback system. Management might design a matrix that relates the message type to the appropriate communication media for each end-user to enhance the communication system in the organization. A real involvement of the end-users in the decision-making process leads to a strong and healthy relationship between management and the end-users. One can achieve the above premises by studying the use of IT by the end-users through surveys or observations. Management might collect data regarding the end-users' utilization of the IT in their social practices, in their communication with others, and in teleworking activities, among others. A clear policy regarding the usage of IT at the workplace for other than business activities could help in establishing a health relationship between management and end-users.

END-USERS VERUS IT IN THE INFORMATION AGE

Generally speaking, IT is implemented within a social context that includes economic, political, cultural, and behavioral factors which differ greatly from one society to another and from one company to another. One reason for rejecting new IT by employees might be the lack of consideration of such differences (Harris & Davidson 1999, Rose & Straub 1998, Winston & Dologite 1999). For example, in Western countries, system developers tend to focus more on the technical side of the "system design" than on the human side. On the other hand, Japanese developers focus on the principle of "human design" (Bensaou & Earl 1998). In Japan, the aim of developing a system is to enhance the contribution of the users, not to replace them. The persons who are in charge of implementing IT must take the human side of the equation into consideration in every step of system development if their plans are to be successful. It is hard to understand the impact of human emotion on the success or failure of IT in the workplace; therefore, the human side of the IT equation should not be underestimated. IT will succeed if it meets the real needs of people.

Society has changed from industrial-to information-oriented. As a result, today's organizations deal with more people and information in the workplace rather than just technology. IT cannot do the job by itself; the other side of the equation must be there to complete the task. At the present time, IT does not know the term "judgement" because it lacks a true understanding of knowledge. On the other hand, people do have the ability to understand, reason, and create. This fact raises the question of whether IT improves the human ability to create, reason, and understand or simply helps employees perform computational tasks and manage information. Even though artificial intelligence (AI) is advanced, IT lacks the capability of interpretation and response to ambiguity. It does not go beyond its performance design. On the other hand, end-users have the capability of interpreting and responding to ambiguity.

Most of IT architecture only addresses the technology component, not the human aspect. Many IT projects fail because of human factors, not technological factors (Bradley 1998, Martinsons & Chong 1999, Raheb 1992, Schwalbe 2002). Organizations sometimes forget that end-users constitute and give meaning to technologies. Most managers get information from verbal discussions; therefore, the emphasis should be on information rather than on technology. One can not be an effective manager without caring about information, but one can be a fairly effective manager without caring a whole lot about Information Technology (Maglitta 1994). The employees' fear of IT replacing them forces employees to work harder to keep their job; however, this could cause "workaholism" (work to death), a phenomenon which affects the employee's attitude (Haas 1991). Some companies have tried to develop systems which focus on ergonomics, but they treat their employees only as users of systems and do not value them as complements or alternatives to the systems (Bensaou & Earl 1998). IT can help employees to perform their job in a better way. However, IT applications, in many cases, are misused or underutilized due the lack of understanding of the interdependency between IT and employees. A successful implementation of IT includes the right IT application to help the right end-users perform the right process (Martinsons & Chong 1999).

IT has a significant impact on organizational communication channels; yet, the human element will continue to play a crucial role. Naisbitt (1984) used the term "high tech/high touch" in proposing that whenever a new technology is introduced into a society, there must be a counterbalancing human response or the technology will be rejected. He even believes that as the use of IT increases, the role of human interaction to insure the acceptance and successful implementation of the technology increases as well. Interpersonal communication skills are very essential for the success of IT. Person-to-person interaction will continue to be the most effective communication media, because managers want to see their employees and want to watch them work. The following propositions are suggested:

P7: The concept of "human design", that is to make use of the
 explicit knowledge of end-users, is positively associated
 with the success of IT.

P8: The right combination of the end-users and IT is positively
 associated with the task success.

Management could make use of the knowledge of its end-users by continuously monitoring the end-users progress in acquiring knowledge through surveys and qualified tests. Managers might create task/end-users' knowledge matrix that matches the right end-user who has the knowledge and the skills for the right task.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

The importance of this paper is that it provides normative guidelines that managers can use to establish a healthy and productive relationship between IT and the end-users. IT has positive and negative effects on end-users' behavior. It is management's responsibility to be aware of such implications. A need for establishment of a neutral party to foster a healthy relationship among management, IT, and end-user is a challenge and an opportunity for new specialists to advance in the 21st Century. More work regarding the effect of IT on human behavior, in general, and on end-users' behavior, in particular, is needed. For example, further studies of the effect of IT on end-user's personal life, privacy, and cognitive processes are needed. An extension to this paper would be to develop an empirical study to validate the stated propositions.

REFERENCES

Agarwal, R., & Prasal, J. (1999). Are individual differences germane to the acceptance of new information technologies? Decision Sciences. 30 (2), 361-391.

Aiello, J., & Kolb, K. (1995). Electronic Performance Monitoring and Social Context: Impact on productivity and Stress. Journal of Applied Psychology . 80 (3), 339-353.

Ajzen, I. & Madden, T. (1986). Predicting of goal directed behaviors: Attitude, intentions, and perceived behavior control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 22, 453-474.

Al-Khaldi, M. and Wallace, R (1999). The influence of attitudes on personal computer utilization among knowledge workers: The case of Saudi Arabia. Information & Management; Amsterdam; 36(4), pp. 185-204.

Ansel, D., & Dyer, C. (1999). A framework for restaurant information technology. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly. 40(3), 74-84.

Back, W. and Moreau, K. (2001). Information management strategies for project management" Project Management Journal; 32(1), pp. 10-19.

Baffour, G. & Betsey, C. (2000). Human Resources Management and Development in the Telework Environment. U.S. Department of Labor Symposium on Telework and New Workplace of the 21st Century. Xavier University, New Orleans, Louisiana. October 16, pp.17-21.

Bensaou, M. & Earl, M. (1998).The Right Mind-Set for Managing IT : Japanese and American Methods. Harvard Business Review. 76(5), 119.

Bhattacherjee, A. (1998). Managerial influences on interorganizational information technology use: A principal agent model. Decision Sciences. 29 (1), 139-162.

Bloodgood, J. and Salisbury, W. (2001). Understanding the influence of organizational change strategies on information technology and knowledge management strategies. Decision Support Systems; Amsterdam; 31 (1), pp. 55-69.

Bradley, J. (1998). Human computer interaction and the growing role of social context. American Society for Information Science. 24(3), 18-19.

Brandt, S. (1997). Constructivism: Teaching for Understanding of the Internet. Communications of the ACM. 40(10), 112-117.

Brynjolfsson, E. & Hitt, L. (1998). Beyond the productivity Paradox. Communications of The ACM.

Brynjolfsson, E. (1993). The Productivity Paradox of Information Technology. Communications of the ACM.

Crabb, S. (1993). Building a Better Workplace by Design. Personnel Management. 25(8), 20-25.

Davis, F. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information technology. MIS Quarterly 13(3), 319-340.

Dasgupta, S., Agarwal, D., Ioannidis, A., & Gopalakrishman, S. (1999). Determinants of information technology adoption: An extension of existing models to firms in a developing country. Journal of Global Information Management. 7(3), 30-40.

Fink, D. (1998). Guidelines for the successful adoption of information technology in small and medium enterprises. International Journal of Information Management. 18 (4), 243-253.

Francik, E., Rudman, S., Cooper, D., & Levine, S. (1991). Putting innovation to work: Adoption strategies for multimedia communication systems. Communications of the ACM. 35(12), 52-63.

Fulk, J., & Boyd, B. (1991). Emerging Theories of Communication of Organizations. Journal of Management. 17 (2), 407-446.

Galinsky, E. & Kim, S. (2000). Navigating Work and Parenting by working at Home: Perspectives of Workers and Children whose Parents Work at Home. U.S. Department of Labor Symposium on Telework and New Workplace of the 21st Century. Xavier University, New Orleans, Louisiana. October 16, pp.37-38.

Greengard, S. (1999). Privacy: An increasingly public matter. Workforce. 78(10),120-122.

Haas, R. (1991). Strategies to Cope with a Cultural Phenomenon-Workaholism.Supervisory Management. 36 (11), 4.

Harrington, S., & Ruppel, C. (1999). Telecommuting: A test of trust, competing values, and relative advantage. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. 42(4), 223-239.

Harris, R. & Davidson, R. (1999). Anxiety and involvement: Cultural dimensions of attitudes toward computers in developing societies. Journal of Global Information Management. 7(1), 26-38.

Hasan, H., & Ditsa, G. (1999). The impact of culture on the adoption of IT: An interpretive study. Journal of Global Information Management. 7(1), 5-15.

Ives, B., and Olson, M. (1984). User involvement and MIS success: A review of research. Management Science. 30 (2), 586-603.

Karahanna, E., Detmar, S. & Chervany, N. (1999). Information technology adoption across time: A cross sectional comparison of pre-adoption and post adoption beliefs. MIS Quarterly. 23(3), 183-213.

Karahanna, E. & Straub, D. (1999). The psychological origins of perceived usefulness and ease-ofuse. Information & Management. 35(4), 237-250.

Leonard-Barton, D., & Deschamps, I. (1988). Managerial influence in the implementation of new technology. Management Science. 34(10), 1252-1265.

Lin, W. and Shao, B. (2000). The relationship between user participation and system success: A simultaneous contingency approach. Information & Management; Amsterdam; 37(6), 283-295.

Maglitta, J. (1994). Information ... Please. ComputerWorld. January 10. 25-27.

Mahmoud, E., & Rice, G. (1998). Information systems technology and healthcare quality improvement. Review of Business. 19(3), 8-12.

Mallalieu, G., Harvey, C., & Hardy, C. (1999). The wicked relationship between organizations and information technology. Journal of End User Computing. 11(4), 40-50.

Malone, R. (1994). Wireless Communications with a Human Face. Communication News. 36.

Martinsons, M., & Chong, P.K. (1999). The influence of human factors and specialist involvement on information systems success. Human Relations. 52(1), January 123-152.

Mathieson, K. (1991). Predicting User Intentions: Comparing the Technology Acceptance Model with the Theory of Planned Behavior. Information Systems Research. 2(3), 173-191.

McCune, J. (1998). The productivity paradox. Management Review. 87(3) 38-40.

Montealagre, R. (1999). A temporal model of institutional interventions for information technology adoption in Less-developed countries. Journal of Management Information Systems. 16(1) 207-232.

Moore, G. & Benbasat, I. (1991). Developing of an Instrument to Measure the Perception of Adoption an Information Technology Innovation. Information Systems Research. 2(3), 192-222.

Myers, D., Mitchell, T., Larson, J., & Luthans, F. (1993). Human Behavior in Organizations. New York, NY. McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Naisbitt, J., (1984). Megatrends : Ten New Directions Transforming Our Lives. New York, NY. Warner Books, Inc.

Ozer, M. (2001). User segmentation of online music services using fuzzy clustering. Omega; Oxford; Apr 2001, 29(2), pp. 193-206.

Prager, K., & Overholt, M. (1994). How to Create a Changed Organization: Successful Implementations. Information Systems Management. 64-70.

Pratt, J. (2000). Telework and Society-Implication for Corporate and Societal Cultures. U.S. Department of Labor Symposium on Telework and New Workplace of the 21st Century. Xavier University, New Orleans, Louisiana. October 16, pp.30-36.

Raheb, S. (1992). There's no excuse for failure. Canadian Manager. 17(3), 18-19.

Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. 4th ed. New York, The Free Press.

Rose, G., & Straub, D. (1998). Predicting general IT uses: Applying TAM to the Arabic world. Journal of Global Information Management. 6(3), 39-46.

Schwalbe, K. (2002). Information Technology Project Management. 2nd ed. Course Technology

Shadur, M., Kienzle, R., & Rodwell, J. (1999). The relationship between organizational climate and employee perceptions of involvement. Group and Organization Management. 24(4), 479-503.

Strassmann, P. (1999). The Productivity paradox. Paul Strassmann@buttler Group Journal No. 2., October. http://www.strassmann.com

Strassmann, P. (1997). Has Business Squandered the IT Payoff? Computer Finance.

Tolsby, J. (1998). Effects of organization culture on a large scale IT introduction effort: A case study of the Norwegian army's EDBLF project. European Journal of Information Systems. 7(2),108-114.

Van Horn, C. & Storen, D. (2000). Telework: Coming of Age? Evaluating the Potential Benefits of Telework. U.S. Department of Labor Symposium on Telework and New Workplace of the 21st Century. Xavier University, New Orleans, Louisiana. October 16, pp.2-5.

Venkatraman, N., Tanriverdi, H., & Stokke, P. (1999). Is it working? Working from home at Statoil, Norway. European Management Journal. 17(5), 513-531.

Winston, E., & Dologite, D. (1999). Achieving IT infusion: A conceptual model for small businesses. Information Resources Management Journal. 12(1), 26-38.

World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA) Report. (2000). Digital Planet. The Global Information Economy. 2, Executive Summary. http://www.witsa.org/

World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA) Report. (1998). Digital Planet. The Global Information Economy. 1, Executive Summary. http://www.witsa.org

Khaled Alshare, Emporia State University