Styles of teaching: Style B--the practice style.

Thomson, William C.

There are many approaches to teaching skills and strategies in Physical Education, and our literature is rich with descriptions of these varied methodologies. One writer in particular, Muska Mosston, notably contributed to Physical Education's body of literature with his detailed descriptions of the characteristics of various teaching methods. In categorizing these " Styles of Teaching" the strengths and weaknesses of each method of teaching a physical education lesson were analyzed. Mosston's analyses showed that for any style a teacher might choose, certain aspects or possibilities of the teaching-learning situation were facilitated while other aspects were diminished. In other words, there are always strengths and weaknesses inherent in any teaching strategy (Mosston, 1992; Mosston & Ashworth, 2002).

This is the second article in a series which offers insight into each of the Teaching Styles (Thomson, 2009). The first article in this series provided background information regarding the Spectrum of Teaching Styles, and a description of how the first style--Style A, or the Command Style--is used. This article recaps the Teaching Spectrum background, then will discuss the next of the Teaching Styles along the continuum--Style B, the Practice Style. Practical examples and suggestions regarding how Style B may be used in its' main form and how it is typically combined with the Style A are also included.

Some background on the Styles of Teaching Spectrum

Joined by colleague Sara Ashworth, Mosston's conception of teaching styles evolved over time (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). These styles are divided into two main categories. On the one hand are those styles categorized as "Reproduction" styles. The name comes from the idea that in each of the teaching situations in this category, the students try to copy (reproduce) a movement demonstrated by the teacher or a skilled demonstrator, and they are judged to be more successful the closer their actions come to the actions which were demonstrated. Variations occur in the way in which students practice the movement task and the way in which they will receive performance feedback about their movements. The five styles in this category are: the Command Style (Style A), Practice (B), Reciprocal (C), Self-Check (D), and the Inclusion (E) Style (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994).

The second main category of teaching styles is comprised by what are termed the "Production" styles. The primary characteristic here is that students are asked to perform creatively or to solve a movement problem without prior demonstration. They are asked to figure out a solution with teacher guidance, but not with a direct teacher demonstrated "solution". For example, teams of students in a basketball unit may be asked to create some number of offensive plays to run against a man-to-man defense. The teacher has chosen not to have them copy a prescribed formula, but rather to have them think creatively (and hopefully take more ownership) to figure out how best to attack this particular kind of defense. Table #1 displays each style name along with one distinguishing characteristic of the style.

A brief review of Style A--the Command Style

In command Style teaching, all decisions regarding how skills are to be practiced are made by the teacher. The teacher signals (i.e., gives "commands") to direct the pacing of the practice. For example, a teacher may have students practice passing a soccer ball with a partner, and students are arranged in two lines about 15 feet apart and facing their partner in the opposite line. S/he says to students on one side, "Remember to set your plant foot beside the ball, and contact the ball with the instep of your kicking foot. Ready? Pass". All students then pass the ball across to their partner. The teacher then repeats the cues to the second line, and signals them to pass the ball back. This is indicative of Style A, as students only move or engage in a skill repetition on the command to do so. Style A offers perhaps the most straightforward way of introducing new motor skills to a class. In doing so it allows students to establish correct movement patterns at a learning pace designed to insure that no student is overly rushed for information processing time (Thomson, 2009). However, this methodical pacing can leave some students straining to move at a faster rate. How then can a teacher structure the leaning situation so all students practice at a pace more appropriate to their individual abilities? For the answer, the discussion moves to the next Style along the continuum, Style B, the Practice Style.

Style B--the Practice Style

As in all of the Reproduction Styles, a Style B episode begins with the teacher explaining and demonstrating the skill to be learned and practiced. As in Style A, all students perform the same practice tasks, and the goal is to copy or reproduce the movement as close as possible to the demonstrated model. However, unlike the Command Style, in Practice Style the students will practice at their own, self-selected pace (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994). After explanations and demonstrations of the task (and the drill or activity in which the task is to be practiced) the teacher gives one signal (e.g., "Begin") to all students to begin practicing. Two scenarios depict this style:

Scenario one: tennis forehand volleys

Imagine the lesson objective is for the students to learn how to hit the tennis forehand volley. The teacher gathers the students to explain and demonstrate how to execute this skill. S/He stands near the net and has a student, who is on the opposite side of the net, toss a few balls to her/his forehand side. S/he describes correct technique as s/he steps forward to hit the volley, and repeats the demonstration and important skill cues several times. This teacher then describes how students are to go about practicing the skill. Perhaps each student pairs with another, and they are asked to take turns as both a feeder and hitter: the feeder (F) tosses balls to their partner (P) who hits some number of volleys, just as in the demonstration, and they each take turns in each role. During the student practice time, the teacher (T) circulates through and around the court area, offering corrective feedback and encouragement to all students. Figure 1 portrays a likely arrangement of students as described in this scenario.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

In a given amount of time different students will perform fewer or more practice trials, depending on their abilities. Since the teacher is not leading the group practice and signaling for individual practice trials, s/he is free to circulate to provide feedback to individual students.

Scenario two: exercise circuit with students at multiple fitness stations

Imagine the teacher has placed numerous pieces of equipment around the gymnasium which students will use for various fitness training activities. The activities are arranged as stations the students will rotate through. In one place is a jump rope, in another is a step bench, in another some medicine balls, in another some dumbbells, and so forth. The teacher explains and demonstrates each exercise to be performed at each station, and the rotation order is described. The students are then told to go to a station and get ready to begin the circuit. On the signal "Begin" the students start their exercises. As in the tennis example, the teacher now spends her/his time circulating throughout the area reminding students of correct technique as well as offering encouragement.

The Practice Style of teaching in Physical Education is probably the most used of all the teaching approaches. Physical Educators will readily identify with the idea of demonstrating a skill and then contriving practice opportunities for students to learn that skill. It is what PE teachers have been doing since PE began! Mosston's descriptions remind us of what we gain, and what we potentially forfeit, when we employ this approach to a lesson or lesson segment.

Strengths of the Practice Style

In Style A--the Command Style--the number of repetitions is limited as the teacher seeks to ingrain correct technique in a skill new to the students. Moreover, the necessity of giving commands and group direction limits the number of skill repetitions and also precludes much, if any, individual feedback to students. In comparison to the noted weaknesses inherent in the Command Style, Style B's self-paced practice is more accommodating to students with different ability levels in the given task. Those at a higher skill level will perhaps do more repetitions (as in the tennis drill scenario) while those who need to work at a slower, more methodical pace can do that as well. Students are neither hampered or restrained (bored) by too slow a pace, nor overwhelmed and frustrated by too fast a pace.

Further, Style B provides opportunity for the teacher to give individual feedback. All students, regardless of ability level, need to receive performance feedback in order to progress in their motor skills and their strategic use of their skills. Not only is feedback, in its' various forms, important for correcting mistakes and supporting appropriate movement, it can also serve as a motivating factor to promote student persistence in striving to learn the task (Magill, 2001). The Practice Style frees the teacher to move about and give attention to individual needs. In doing so, the teacher enjoys much more personal interaction with students than in the Command Style.

Weaknesses of the Practice Style

Interestingly, feedback can also be mentioned among the weaknesses of this Style. Although Style B allows a teacher the freedom to circulate among the students and give feedback, actually giving the feedback can be a problem if the class size is large. Take this example from a golf lesson. Students are arranged along a hitting line as they practice chipping the ball. A typical formation of a golf class hitting drill is shown in Figure 2 below, where (T) indicates the teacher and (X) indicates the students:

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

It may take the teacher (T) 5 to 10 minutes to get from one end of the line of students to the other. It might even take as much as 20 or 30 minutes! Each student will have good and bad habits, flaws and/or idiosyncrasies to be observed and either strengthened or corrected. Now, a fundamental principle of motor skill learning (see, e.g., Magill, 1998 for a review of Schema and other motor learning theories) is the more times a skill is practiced the better it is learned. If students practice numerous trials without corrective feedback, and if they are practicing the skill with incorrect technique, that technique becomes the predominant habit of the learner. How often do Physical Educators, as well as athletic coaches, have to try to change the habitual skill patterns of students/athletes who have moderate success with their well-learned but poor technique? As the reader it no doubt aware, learning a skill is hard, but getting learners to change from poor to proper technique can seem even harder.

Styles A and B used in combination: a volleyball example

Imagine a lesson in which the objective is for students to practice and improve in the skill of pacing a volleyball using the forearm pass. The teacher instructs the class in correct technique with a description and demonstration of hand and arm position, body alignment, body movement, and correct point of contact. S/he then arranges students into two lines of partners facing each other (as in the soccer example given earlier) in order to begin skill practice. All the balls begin in one line on same side. Figure 3 displays this formation; again, (T) indicates the teacher and (X) indicates students, with ([X.sub.o]) indicating a student with a ball.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

To begin the drill, the teacher may say to the students with the volleyballs, "Tossers, you should use a two-hand, underhand toss to your partner. Try to get the ball to a point below their waist--about mid-thigh or knee level. Passers, show me a good ready position; everyone place one foot slightly forward and bend your knees; thaw's it, arms straight and out in front. Remember to contact the ball in the middle of your forearm--don't hit it on your wrist! Tossers, I just want you to catch the ball when your partner passes it back to you. OK, ready? Toss!". The tossing line tosses the ball; the passing line passes it back. The teacher repeats the sequence several more times, giving group reminders of correct technique. At some point the line roles are reversed, so all students get passing practice. As the reader will discern, this controlled, methodical approach characterizes the Command Style. Students move or attempt a skill only on a signal from the teacher.

Now, after a few minutes and some number of trials by each student, the teacher then says, "OK everyone, now I want the tossers to toss and the passers to pass just as we've been doing, but I want you to go at your own pace. Tossers make sure to give a playable toss; passers work on making an accurate pass using proper contact. After a minute, I'll ask you to switch roles. I'll come around a help you. Ready? Begin".

The activity begins, and the teacher starts to circulate among the students. Being freed of directing each skill repetition, s/ he is now able to provide performance feedback to the students: "That's it, Carlos, good contact point; I like the way you're bending your knees and reaching forward, Darius. Amanda, make sure to keep those tosses down around your partners' knees--yes, that one was better, make them all like that". Of course, these are just samples of verbal interaction. The good teacher will certainly go into more detail as needed, will stop and remind students of correct technique, will re-demonstrate the skill as is appropriate, and generally "work the room" going up and down the formation in an attempt to help all students improve their skill and get the most out of this particular drill situation.

Summary and suggestions

Describing these teaching Styles should bring attention to the merits and limitations of each one. Style A--Command Style--is useful for introducing a new task and helping students lay a "skill foundation" in learning that task. The pace is slower than in other teaching situations, in hopes of (1) reinforcing the movement cues (cognitive learning) and in (2) allowing the students to become familiar with the movements parameters germane to the task (psychomotor learning). However, that pacing may be viewed as too pedestrian for more advanced students who, able and wanting to move at a faster pace, could become impatient. Further, while group feedback reminders may be given, the teacher should not spend time giving individual feedback to students, as this would further slow and limit the number of practice repetitions the rest of the class would received. For these reasons, the Command Style is not recommended for a prolonged amount of time. Command segments generally should last one to three minutes at most.

Addressing Style A weaknesses (fewer skill repetitions, lack of feedback) are the strengths of the Practice (B) Style. In the Practice Style, students are given a task to practice having first se en it demonstrated and having the important skill cues noted. They are then allowed to begin practicing the task setting their own pace of repetition. This can allow for multiple skill repetitions in a relatively short amount of time, a very good thing from a motor learning perspective. This self-paced practice is more accommodating to different ability levels. Moreover, this Style frees the teacher to circulate and interact with the class, offering important individual feedback.

If, indeed, more skill repetition equates with greater motor learning, the Practice Style offers students the chance to get those numerous reps, as it certainly fosters a greater number of skill repetitions than the Command Style. This style is therefore suggested for use almost any time a new skill is to be introduced to the students. As noted, Style B is the "classic" PE teaching methodology. A happy by-product of this is that, given more activity by students at their self-selected pace, more caloric expenditure should occur!

However, it can be difficult to offer timely feedback to all students in a large class. In some cases there can be a significant lag time between the beginning of student practice and their receiving of this feedback (as noted in the golf example). Students can easily get into the habit of merely performing numerous repetitions without taking time to analyze the components of their movements.

Review of the various Styles of Teaching as characterized by Mosston reminds us as teachers what we gain and lose with each teaching decision we make. Every approach we may choose has some kind of positive aspect, yet it also contains something negative as well. In the Practice Style, we can foster multiple skill repetitions in a relatively short time, but may not be able to provide important feedback to all our students in a (relatively) immediate sense. How can a teacher structure the learning environment to insure all students get individual feedback in a timely fashion? The next Style along the continuum, Style C or the Reciprocal Style, addresses that very issue. Thus, the next article in this series will discuss the advantages of Style C as well as its' weaknesses.

References

Magill, R. A. (1998). Motor learning: concepts and applications (5th Ed.). McGraw-Hill, Boston.

Magill, R. A. (2001). Motor learning: concepts and applications (6th Ed.). McGraw-Hill, Boston.

Mosston, M. (1992). Tug O War, no more: Meeting teaching learning objectives using the spectrum of teaching styles. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 63, 27-31.

Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (1994). Teaching physical education (4th Ed.). Macmillan, New York.

Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002). Teaching physical education (5th Ed.). Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.

Thomson, W. (2009). Mosston's styles of teaching: A review of command style. The Virginia Journal, 30(2), 20-22.

William C. Thomson, Ed.D., Longwood University

Table 1

Style   Style Name             Characteristic

  A     COMMAND                Students only move on signal
  B     PRACTICE               Self-paced student practice
  C     RECIPROCAL             Feedback from a peer observer
  D     SELF-CHECK             Feedback to self
  E     INCLUSION              Multiple levels of task difficulty
  F     GUIDED DISCOVERY       Learning directed by questions
  G     CONVERENT PRODUCTION   Students coverage on one correct answer
  H     DIVERGENT PRODUCTION   Multiple correct solutions to problem
  I     GOING BEYOND           Students conceive problem and solution