The academic profession in the Third World: a comparative study.
van der Walt, Johannes L. ; Wolhuter, Charl ; Potgieter, Ferdinand 等
INTRODUCTION
Higher education, and by implication the academic profession as a
core component thereof, fulfils an important function in twenty-first
century society in terms of the establishment of a knowledge society. In
Third World countries, it is furthermore typically assigned the function
of catapulting these societies from their present peripheral,
marginalized positions in the world to becoming fully-fledged members of
the twenty-first century global society (1). Academics' work and
participation in this process are directed by the value- systems and
value-orientations to which they subscribe both as individuals and
collectively as a professional group. An individual's behavior is,
to a large extent, determined by his/her value-orientation. A person
acts, takes decisions, judges and exercises discipline in accordance
with his/her personal hierarchy of values. (2) Without knowledge of and
insight into a person's values, one can hardly claim to know that
person, even after having studied his/her personality (3).
This article offers, on the one hand, a theoretical description and
critical reflection on the values of academics in five "Third World
countries: Mexico, Argentina, South Africa, Malaysia and Mainland China.
On the other, it offers and discusses the results of an empirical survey
that was done for determining the extent to which academics'
professional working conditions are in accordance with their collective
value system. It commences with a conceptual-theoretical framework built
around: a) the concept of "values;" b) the constellation of
values in which Third World academics find themselves; and c) the key
concept "fulfilling profession" with the values attached to
it. This is followed by an outline of the empirical investigation. The
article concludes with a discussion of the results, some conclusions and
recommendations.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Value orientation
After an extensive literature survey, Hattingh (4) concludes that
Kluckhohn's (1951) definition of values is still the most
frequently used by researchers. The latter defines values as follows:
"values ... mean something similar to conceptions of the desirable
that influence the way people select action and evaluate events".
(5) This definition is still valid today, despite the current value
crisis. (6) Hattingh (7) distinguishes between external and internal
determinants of values. Internal determinants of values pertain to the
uniqueness of every individual and the stages of his/her moral
development (cf. Kohlberg's theory of the stages in the moral
development of human beings). An individual's family, cultural
group, peer group, community, school attended, educational background
and society are all external value determinants.
All values, including those held by academics (in the Third World),
are rooted in ethical value systems. As Andrew (8) correctly avers, to
inquire about a person's values is to pitch the inquiry at a more
lofty level than to ask about his or her understanding of the good
things in life. An inquirer might keep on questioning until s/he
received some proper answers, such as for instance, the advancement of
knowledge or democracy, world betterment, civic embellishment or
sell-actualization. Such values are in turn rooted in deeper ethical /
philosophical meaning, for instance, in one's view of the meaning
of life, one's orientation towards the future or progress. As Gray
(9) rather cynically remarks, nothing had value until humans came on the
scene: "Value is only a shadow cast by humans deciding or
choosing" on the basis of deeper ethical/moral (10) /philosophical
considerations, one might add. Ethics is concerned with an approach to
life and existence that goes beyond contingency. (11) Ethics are deeper
than our rational thoughts: ethical inquiry reveals that there is not a
single way of life for all or scheme of values for all --not even for
the single individual (in this case, academic). Instead it shows, as
Gray (12) argues, that people (academics) have reason to live and behave
in different ways, based on their respective individual and group
ethics. Different ways of life embody incompatible aspects of, for
instance, the human good. Zecha (13) gives an apt summary of the
connection between values and ethics: "... moral values have their
objective roots in nature, including human nature, but are relative or
subjective insofar as each value must be created or actualized by an
individual for protection, support or improvement of human life".
Ethics deals with choices about the promotion of the interests of
others. (14) In the context of higher education, for instance, the
managing echelon should act in the best interests of inter alia the
academic staff; and vice versa. (15)
Hatlingh (16) developed a typology of twenty value types, which
includes categories such as religious values, moral values, aesthetical
values, economical values, cultural values, political values, legal
values, national values, intellectual values, bodily/physical values,
recreational values, security values, values about authority and
freedom, values about the self, emotional values, vocational values,
environmental values, life values, and temporal- spatial values. All of
these values play an indispensable role in the life and work of the
academic as an individual, and also in his/her life as a member of the
academic profession.
Individuals tend to order their values in a hierarchy. The cultural
philosopher Eduard Spranger (1882-1963) distinguished between six value
types, one of which can be seen as dominating, central, direction-giving
in the life of an individual:
* theoretical or intellectual values, typical of a person
interested in theory/science;
* economic values, typical of a person for whom the material values
in the world of business are decisive;
* aesthetical values, typical of a person who lives for art and for
whom beauty and creativity are important;
* social values, typical of a person who wishes to do community
service and for whom society and interaction with others are the highest
norms;
* power values, typical of a person interested in politics and who
wishes to govern and see that order is maintained and commands executed,
and finally,
* religious values, typical of a person for whom religion and
spirituality are the most important. (17)
According to the above analysis, the academic profession seems to
be composed of people whose value-orientation is mainly guided by
intellectual values. However, no (Third World) academic's value
system exists in isolation. Instead, it forms part of a much broader
dynamic value context consisting of institutional, national as well as
international norms and values. Each of these three different
sub-contexts in which the Third World academic as an individual and as a
group practice his or her profession, has its own value system. These
contextual value systems do not only influence one another reciprocally,
but they can also either reinforce, contaminate or even counter the
collective value system of the academic profession in the Third World.
THREE ACADEMIC CONTEXTS
The institutional context
The academic as professional person finds him / herself in the
context of a particular educational institution to which he/she is
affiliated. Teaching, research and service are the key domains of
academic work at these institutions. Empirical research that was done
internationally, (18) as well as in a Third World country, such as South
Africa, (19) found a positive correlation between research productivity,
and the teaching competence of academics. Based on this finding, one
should therefore rather talk of a teaching-research symbiosis than of a
teaching-research tension. Collegial support and collaboration (or the
lack thereof) will influence the academic's functioning and
fulfillment of the above-mentioned three core academic activities.
Another issue that is of import to academics is their job security
(tenure) and prospects of promotion. This relates to the promotion
policy at their respective institutions. An increasing percentage of
academic staff worldwide work on a part-time or temporary contract basis
or both. In Latin America in particular, a large percentage of academic
staff have always held only part-time posts. In Mexico, for example,
only 93 009 of the 255 272 academic positions are full-time posts. (20)
Other important issues for academics are the space for intellectual
freedom (including tolerance with respect to diversity of thinking), the
organizational climate, and the presence/absence of collegiality. The
way in which an academic's department/school, the particular
faculty and the entire educational institution are managed is also a
matter of concern. This can be explained with reference to
managerialism. Higher educational institutions have since the 1960s been
sucked into the vortex of the efficiency cult, the value-orientation of
which resulted in the introduction of a management style known as
"managerialism"--with its attendant bureaucratic culture.
According to some observers, managerialism has been undermining the
independence and freedom of academics at institutional level. The
process of subjecting academia to the demands and values of
managerialism has been playing itself out nationally and
internationally, also in Third World countries. (21) In fact,
managerialism in Third World higher education institutions has been
aggravated because of external evaluations and rigid promotion systems.
The impact of this managerialist culture on the life and work of the
individual academic can be adjudged from the work of Sparkes. (22)
The national context
The international trends and forces (23) did not bypass the
universities in the Third World. In Malaysia, for instance, the
governance of public universities is continually being revisited in the
light of the transformation of higher education and the changing role of
universities vis-a-vis government. (24) In the case of Mexico, as
Galaz-Fontes et al. (25) show, higher education has, since the early
1990s, been subjected to intense external processes that have influenced
academics and their work. Higher expectations in terms of relevance and
a new management perspective are salient dimensions of these changes,
and the impact thereof on the academic profession still needs to be
assessed.
The same applies in the case of Mainland China, although
universities over there differ from their Western-type counterparts in
other parts of the world. According to Fengqiao and Yuan, (26) the
concept of danwei (a small business) plays a key role in understanding
institutions of higher learning. An institution, i.e. a danwei, is a
state-controlled, economic, political and social entity. It does not,
however, display the typical Western-type orientation towards market
demands. A danwei is a small and self-sufficient society, and therefore
no or little exchange is necessary with other danweis. The relationship
between employers and employees in a danwei is not market--but rather
dependence-driven. Because of this, and in contrast to the situation in
Western societies, the existence of the academic profession in China is
characterized by monotonous educational backgrounds, academic
inbreeding, stagnation, low mobility and permanent employment. (27)
In Argentina, the government that took office in 1989 designed and
implemented a political agenda for the university sector that was
clearly set within the international trends of the era, among others by
placing emphasis on the efficiency of institutional administration and
on improvement of educational quality and research productivity. (28)
The introduction of evaluation and accreditation processes for
institutions and programs by government has generated a series of new
institutional practices that involve academics who are participants in
both self-evaluation and external evaluation activities. (29)
Whereas the tendencies toward managerialism developed relatively
slowly in most countries, in the case of South Africa (where
universities had been isolated from international trends before 1994,
because of an international academic boycott), these forces manifested
themselves suddenly and forcefully. (30) Directives from the National
Qualifications Authority, audit reports from the Higher Education
Qualification Committee and forced mergers of universities and other
higher education institutions have had a negative effect on academic
autonomy per se. State and bureaucracy-driven directives, which were
unthinkable before 1994, are now part and parcel of the everyday lives
of academics.
The state-driven reform of higher education in South Africa is
being engineered on the principles of democratization, multiculturalism,
desegregation and decentralization. (31) The entire education system was
changed from a content-based system to an outcomes-based education
system, aimed at the achievement of national economic (economic growth,
eradication of unemployment), political (strengthening of the democratic
culture) and social (equity, creation of a society free from
discrimination) objectives.
In effecting these reforms, the South African government has been
acting in line with trends in post-colonial Africa. During the
post-colonial era, i.e. after the 1960s, the independence and autonomy
of universities in these countries were sacrificed to a certain extent
as governments openly harnessed them for reaching certain national
objectives. (32) The South African Department of Education's
Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (2001) therefore stipulates
that the following values should be pursued by means of the education
system: democracy, social justice, equity, non-racialism and non-
sexism, humanness, an open society, responsibility, respect for the rule
of law, respect and reconciliation. (33)
The international context
International societal contexts influencing both the institutional
and national contexts include:
* demographic trends: population explosion, a changing age pyramid
(ageing population in the developed countries, a maturing median
population in developing countries): an increasingly mobile population
and massification of education
* geographical trends: ecological crisis, an increasingly smaller
world (the 'global village')
* science and technology: scientific and technological progress,
biotechnology, communication, information and knowledge revolutions
* socio-economic trends: the rise of multi-culturalism,
multireligiosity, greater recognition of minority groups, a social
revolution (decline in the dominance of the primary social unit [the
family], and of the secondary social group [the workplace], as well as
the rise of tertiary social groupings based upon functional interest
groups) and economic liberalization.
* political trends: the demise of the once omnipotent nation-state
and the shift of the locus of control into two opposite directions:
upward in the direction of supra-national and international structures,
and downward in the direction of
decentralized and local structures; democratization. (34)
Of all these trends it is especially economic liberalization and
democratization which have had an impact on the academic profession and
its functioning. This finding is confirmed by, among others, Hartog and
Oosterbeek, and Belfield and Harris. (35) Their findings demonstrate
(similar to those of Steyn & Wolhuter (36)) that economic
liberalization and democratization have resulted in, among others, the
erosion, both horizontally and vertically, of the autonomy, freedom and
power of the academic profession. Lateral (horizontal) erosion occurs as
industry and government acquire more say in the day to day running /
management of higher education institutions. This can be observed in the
state/government as the main source of funding of higher education,
demanding an ever growing say in the affairs of universities. The net
result of this is that the state/government is increasingly considering
higher education institutions to be state/government
'property'; as accountable to the state.
Vertical erosion occurs when students, their parents and workers
begin demanding and acquiring more say in decision-making. So-called
liberalization tendencies such as these result in compromising the
highest academic value of institutions of higher learning, namely
scholars' independent and autonomous search for scientific truth.
This trend has been gaining momentum as universities are increasingly
being administered as business organizations on the basis of values such
as profit-taking (in the form of student through-put rates, at times at
the expense of good standards) and cost- efficiency (for example in the
form of massification at the cost of individual attention to students).
Hay (37) describes several other global trends in higher education.
The paradigm shift towards the "new" higher education that he
describes includes trends such as greater service orientation, a more
pragmatic approach to research and scholarship, more emphasis on quality
and accountability, on Mode 2 knowledge production (in other words,
trans-disciplinarity, knowledge developed in the context of application,
wider definitions of knowledge, heterogeneity of research skills,
greater social accountability than Mode 1- purely
academic--institutions, problem-solving oriented research and an
expanded system of quality control), also a stronger emphasis on client
orientation, more and regular reports to commercial sponsors, sharing of
resources with other institutions, and a sharper focus on the
relationship between teaching and research.
Botha (38) in turn mentions six trends with respect to specifically
higher education curriculum development that may arguably be generalized
to most Third World higher education systems: the growth of vocational
and liberal education, the progression from certificate to diploma to
degree, mass education as opposed to selective education, the growth of
distance education for purposes of massification, internationalization
as well as localization, and the diffusion between disciplinary borders
(including the promotion of multidisciplinary aspects of learning and
research related to the Model 2knowledge already mentioned, i.e.
knowledge that is inter-disdisciplinary, and rather more organized
around practical, human- and society relevant issues). (39) With the
introduction of many radically new developments in school and higher
education, there is also a tendency towards the development of new
curricula and courses to meet the new educational needs. More and more
academics seem to be involved in this activity each year. (40)
As far as the financing of higher education is concerned, the
higher education sector has been largely sustained by funding from
national governments. At the inception of these institutions national
governments regarded it as their duty and mandate to provide for
universities and in most cases to fully subsidize the sector. However,
with growing demand for public money in other sectors of life, national
governments have begun to encourage universities to become financially
more independent of public funds. This tendency has an upside in that it
counters the perception among government officials that when government
funds higher education, then the goals of government should be promoted
through the higher education system. (41) Kenya serves as an example.
For five of the six Kenyan universities the decrease in government
funding for universities between 1997 and 1998 ranged between 11.1% and
27.8%. (42) Government nevertheless remains the biggest funder of
universities: 60% of universities' funds are derived from
government. (43) As the biggest source of finance for universities,
government, in this day and age of the neo-liberal economic revolution,
claims a stake in the formulation of goals for and in the running of
these institutions.
THE CONCEPT: "A FULFILLING PROFESSION"
Under which conditions can the practice of a profession be regarded
as "fulfilling" for the practitioner thereof? From the
research of, inter alia, D'Addio (et al) and Bender (et al) (44) as
well as from the doctoral thesis of Jones, (45) it can be deduced that
the answer to this question should include the following: the
practitioner should enjoy his or her profession and should look forward
to going to his/her workplace every day; the working conditions should
be pleasant and challenging; the practitioner should not be burdened
with all kinds of frustrations and irritations; his/her efforts should
bear fruit and realize expectations, and the fruits of the labor should
be enjoyed (in the form of an appropriate salary, bonuses, incentives,
regular promotion and recognition by superiors). The profession can also
be regarded as fulfilling, i.e. meaningful, when the practitioner is
fully trusted to give his/her best and to take initiative (cf. Fukuyama
(46) for the importance of trust). The fulfilling nature or
meaningfulness of a profession is enhanced when the practitioner is
granted the freedom to live his/her own professional life, to strive
towards own ideals, and to perform in terms of the above values (though
within the expectations of the employer). In short, a profession can be
regarded as fulfilling or meaningful if the practice thereof contributes
to the calling of the practitioner. A lack of fulfillment can be seen in
the lives of academics who practice the profession reluctantly, merely
for an income to support a family, or for keeping him or herself busy,
or because s/he cannot find any better job.
THE CAP INVESTIGATION
The CAP study (47) is an international survey of the academic
profession that has so far been applied in 22 countries worldwide.
Despite efforts by the Principal Researchers of the investigation (Prof.
Ulrich Teichler, Director of the International Center for Higher
Education, University of Kassel, Germany; Prof. W. K. Cummings,
Comparative Education Professor, George Washington University,
Washington DC, USA, and Prof. Akira Arimoto, Director, Research
Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, Japan), and
despite a promise of financial support from the Ford Foundation, they
were only successful in recruiting respondents in the following Third
World countries: Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Malaysia, China and South
Africa.
The investigation entails the completion of a questionnaire by a
large sample of academics in each of the 22 participating countries. The
CAP Principal Researchers required participating national research teams
to use cluster sampling. The teams had to identify the main categories
of higher education institutions in their national settings and select
institutions (clusters) randomly from each category of institutions,
which would be surveyed in their totality, i.e. all academics at
selected institutions would be approached to complete the questionnaire.
South Africa serves as an example of the sampling method followed. The
following university categories were identified: historically Black
universities, historically White English medium universities,
historically White Afrikaans medium universities and a distance
university (The University of South Africa). Eight university clusters
were formed: the distance institution, three historically Black
universities and two of each of the historically White Afrikaans and
historically White English universities.
The data processing was as follows. The results of the final sample
were compared to available aggregate data on the academic profession in
the particular country pertaining to gender and to academic field. If
the sample corresponded to the aggregate data, the sample was deemed to
be representative and valid. Reliability was controlled by comparing CAP
responses to items such as the age of respondent and years employed in
the higher education sector with the aggregate data available for the
sector. All national teams participating in the CAP survey were required
by the CAP Principals to employ such measures of control of reliability
and validity of data. Data were analyzed by the respective national
teams. A central data base is being maintained at the University of
Kassel's International Center for Higher Education Research in
Germany.
The questionnaire surveys the following factors in the professional
lives of the academics: biographic background, teaching activities,
research activities, community involvement, internationalization and
relationships with institutional governance. The survey provides data
about the collective value system of the academic profession.
The CAP study commenced in 2006, and the data collection was
concluded in 2008. The same questionnaire was applied in all 22
countries; the data should therefore in principle be the same and
resultantly comparable. However, the country-specific reports show that
the researchers in the participating countries opted to variously
exploit the data in accordance with the requirements of their respective
national contexts. The upshot of this is that although the available
data may largely coincide, they may also differ in certain respects--or
that some details may even lack. For particular items, data may be
available for one, two or three countries, while for other items, data
may only be available for, say, two countries--in a variety of
configurations. This state of affairs poses both a research design and a
methodological challenge. This article not only recognizes this
particular challenge, but also endeavors to face it by using the
available data for painting an overall picture of the state of the
academic profession in the Third World. Despite certain gaps in the
data, an overall picture emerges in the end.
Since the data are only available for the five Third World
countries that participated in the survey, the overall picture of the
academic profession painted below is restricted to the situation in
these five countries, and can not be generalized to all Third World
countries. There is, however, reason to believe that the findings
reported below could be substantively generalized to other Third World
countries as well. (48) Put differently, it can be expected that similar
circumstances will prevail also in other Third World countries, but this
has to be verified.
The overall picture of the academic profession entails a portrayal
of the extent to which respondents find the academic profession
meaningful and fulfilling.
FINDINGS
The academic profession and the teaching-research continuum
Traditionally, universities in the Third World were mainly teaching
universities, i.e. they and the academics attached to them viewed their
mission as the development of high level human resources for a
developing economy. (49) This view has been changing in recent decades
as international trends, which posit an imperative for all three core
activities of the university--teaching, research and community
service--caught up with these countries too. (50)
Respondents were asked whether their interests lie primarily in
teaching or in research, and to respond by choosing between one of the
following four options:
* primarily in teaching
* in both, but leaning towards teaching
* in both, but leaning towards research
* primarily in research
The results are presented in table 1.
The preference of academics in these three countries for which data
are available, appears to be about equally divided between teaching and
research. Most academics do not see themselves exclusively as teachers
or exclusively as researchers, but rather prefer one of the two without
forsaking their role with respect to the other--which confirms the
teaching-research symbiosis thesis outlined above.
Teaching-research "tension"
Responses by South African academics to the item as to whether
teaching and research reinforce each other or are in competition with
each other are presented in table 2. Comparisons are thereafter made
with the situation in Mexico (with references to Germany and Australia,
for purposes of norm setting).
The response distribution shows that the South African academic
profession stands spread-eagled over the teaching-research distribution.
Most seem to believe these two activities to reinforce each other.
However, one fifth of them seem to believe that some tension exists
between these two core academic activities.
The CAP-data further shows that South African and Mexican academics
respectively spend 21.42 hours and 22.5 hours per week on teaching
activities (this includes time spent on the preparation of lectures,
presentation of lectures, consultation by students and reading and
evaluation of students' work). (52) This falls within the
international norm. In Germany, for example, the corresponding figure is
26.0 hours. (53) Classes in South Africa and Mexico are quite large,
although this too falls within the international norm. The median class
size of South African respondents is 195 students. The corresponding
figure for Australia is 200. (54)
South African academics experience the large influx of students,
many of whom are ill-prepared for university study, as problematic.
Respondents were asked to respond to the following statement: "I
spend more time than 1 would like teaching basic skills due to student
deficiencies" and to place their responses on a five point-semantic
differentiation scale, ranging from 1 : agree totally, to 3: neutral to
5: disagree totally. The mean response here was 2.01.
There is, according to respondents, a contradiction between
institutional policy and practice, on the one hand, and on the other,
the value that academics attach to teaching and teaching duties. They
were asked to what extent do their universities take into account
teaching quality when making personnel decisions (i.e. appointments and
promotions) and to respond on a five point scale ranging from 1: to a
very great extent and 5 : not at all (midpoint: 3). The mean response in
the case of South African academics is 3.17. There appears to be a gap
between the emphasis placed on teaching by the institutional authorities
and that placed by the academics themselves. Put differently,
institutional management expects academics to carry heavy teaching loads
and the academics do regard themselves primarily as teachers (cf. Table
1). However, when it comes to considering staff appointments and
promotions, institutional policy and practice are perceived as not
attaching much weight either to teaching prowess, or to the teaching
loads of academics.
Research
Institutional policies and practice lend greater recognition to
research and development than to teaching. Respondents were asked the
extent to which their universities take into account research quality
when staff decisions are made, and to place their responses on a five
point scale ranging from 1: to a very great extent, to 5: not at all
(midpoint: 3). The average response of South African academics is 2.87,
i.e. slightly off the neutral mark in the positive direction.
Respondents find administrative personnel not particularly
supportive of their teaching and research activities. They were asked to
indicate on a five point semantic differential scale, ranging from 1:
agree strongly, to 3: neutral, to 5: disagree strongly, their opinions
about the following two statements: "At my university there is a
supportive attitude of administrative staff towards teaching
activities" and "At my university there is a supportive
attitude of administrative staff towards research activities". In
the case of South African academics only 30.16% of the respondents agree
or strongly agree with the first statement. 41.5% of the Mexican
respondents agree or strongly agree with this statement. (55) In the
case of the second statement, 27.19% of South African academics agree or
strongly agree with it, while 32.5% of the Mexican respondents agree or
strongly agree that at their institutions there is a supportive attitude
of administrative staff towards research activities.
Academics' depiction of their own research
Respondents were asked to typify their own research by responding
to each of the following four descriptors on a five point scale, ranging
from 1: to a great extent, to 3: neutral to 5: not at all:
basic/theoretical, applied/practically oriented; commercially
oriented/aimed at technology transfer, and socially oriented/aimed at
the improvement of society. The survey relied on respondents' own
understandings of these concepts as it was believed that all of them,
being professionals in constant interaction with their peers worldwide,
would share basically similar (not too divergent) views as to what these
concepts entail. South African respondents' mean responses are
presented in table 4.
The respondents' research interests can, according to the data
presented in table 4, be placed in the following rank-order:
applied/practical, socially oriented/aimed at the improvement of
society, basic/theoretical, and commercially oriented/technology
transfer. There seems to be a contradiction between institutional policy
and practice and academics' community service activities. It
appears as if, at least as experienced by the South African respondents,
institutional policy and practice are not in step with the practically
oriented and society improving research which both the national and
international contexts and the respondents' personal order of
preference require. This can also be observed in the participants'
responses when they were asked the extent to which their universities
emphasize the following practices:
* taking into consideration the relevance/applicability of the work
of colleagues when staff decisions are made;
* recruiting academics with work experience from outside of
academia, and
* encouraging academics to become involved in community
service/entrepreneurial activities outside the university.
Respondents were requested to respond to each of these three
questions on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1: much to 5:
not at all. The mean responses of South African academics to these three
questions are respectively 3.17, 3.19 and 3.21 ; in other words, all of
them are tilting towards the negative side of neutral.
Job satisfaction
Respondents' responses to items pertaining to job satisfaction
are presented in table 5.
Contrary to what could be expected on the basis of the results of
the items already discussed above, approximately half of the South
African respondents seem satisfied with their jobs. However, the fact
that 11.42% of South African academics rate their job satisfaction as
low, 7.61% as very low, and 28.31% as neutral remains a cause for
concern. The same applies to the fact that
* approximately a quarter (24.23%) of the South African respondents
agree or strongly agree with the statement that their jobs are a source
of considerable personal strain,
* 23.23% affirm that if they could decide about a future job all
over again, would not choose the academic profession as a career, and
* 25.37% are of the view that now is a poor time for any young
person to commence an academic career in their respective field of
expertise.
The large percentage of neutral responses to each of these items is
also a cause for concern.
Of the respondents in China, 21.2% agree with the statement that if
they could have the opportunity again, they would not choose the
academic profession. (57) 15.28% of the South African respondents
indicate that at some stage during the five year period prior to the
survey they considered leaving the academic profession. In China the
corresponding figure is 28%. (58)
When asked whether they were of the opinion that working conditions
had improved or deteriorated since they had started their academic
career and to respond on a five-point scale ranging from 1: much
deteriorated to 3: neutral to 5: much improved, the mean response of
South African academics is 3.68, an indication that respondents are of
the view that since they started their academic careers, working
conditions in higher education have improved somewhat. Despite this, as
indicated, approximately one fifth of them do not experience job
satisfaction (cf. table 5). In response to the same item, 25.5% of
Chinese respondents indicated that they feel working conditions in
higher education have improved very much since they started their
careers, while 35.7% asserted that working conditions have improved.
Similarly, 27.9% affirmed that working conditions have improved
somewhat. (59) In Mexico, 45% of respondents indicated that, since they
began their academic careers, working conditions have improved. (60)
Respondents were also asked how influential they felt themselves to
be in the formulation of academic policy at each of the following three
levels: academic department (or similar level), school/faculty or
similar unit level, and at institutional level, and to respond in terms
of the following four-point scale: 1: very influential, 2: somewhat
influential, 3: slightly influential and 4: not at all influential. The
mean responses of the South African academics are: 2.31 at departmental
level (this indicates some influence), 2.87 on school/faculty level
(little influence) and 3.5 at institutional level (very little
influence). In Malaysia, 9.6% of academics feel very influential on
departmental level, 37.9% feel somewhat influential, 38.7% feel a little
influential, and 13.7% do not feel influential at all. (61) At faculty
level, in Malaysia, 6.4% of academics feel very influential, 25.7% feel
somewhat influential, 40.7% feel a little influential, and 27.2% do not
feel influential at all. (62) At institutional level, 1.8% of Malaysian
academics feel very influential, 12.4% feel somewhat influential, 33.9%
feel a little influential and 51.9% do not feel influential at all. (63)
In Mexico, 64.9% of respondents feel influential at departmental level,
48.5% at school/faculty level, and 22.2% at institutional level. (64)
Respondents were also asked what their experience was of their
universities' management and administration. In Mexico and South
Africa respectively, 55.8% and 68.8% of respondents are of the view that
their institutions have a top-down management style; only 38% and 22%
respectively, feel that at their institutions, communication between
management and academics is good, and 44.7% and 61.5% respectively,
perceive administrative processes at their institutions as being
cumbersome. (65) Among respondents there appears to be a measure of
dissatisfaction with the management culture of their universities,
particularly the top-down management style and the unwieldy
administrative procedures.
DISCUSSION
In outlining the theoretical framework, it was explained that for
the purposes of this investigation the term "fulfilling" would
be regarded as "experiencing the profession as meaningful" and
that the presence of obstacles in the way of a meaningful academic
existence would be construed as "non- fulfilling".
The following can serve as examples of non-fulfillment as brought
to light by the CAP survey. According to table 1, about 53.6% of South
African academics give preference to teaching, and the rest to research.
This pattern of academics straddling the teaching-research continuum is
also visible in the cases of Mexico and Argentina (cf. table 1),
although in these two cases, the academics predominantly on the teaching
half of the continuum are slightly less than in the case of South
Africa. In the case of those who prefer teaching, the demand to conduct
research as well could be a frustration or irritation, and vice versa.
Table 2 highlights another possible frustration: 7.97% of South African
academics totally agree with the statement that "research and
teaching are hardly reconcilable with each other" and a further
12.93% of them basically agree with the statement. Table 2 shows that in
total, approximately one fifth of South African respondents are of the
view that the two activities of teaching and doing research are in their
opinion not reconcilable. In other words, if an academic's
preference is with the one, s/he might not want to be burdened with the
other.
Although the survey showed that the teaching load of Third World
academics compares well with that of their counterparts elsewhere in the
world, there is a difference. The average response of South African
academics is 2.01, i.e. on the "agree" side of neutral; in
other words, they spend more time teaching basic academic skills due to
new students' inadequate academic preparation for university study.
This type of (remedial) teaching and teaching support activities do not
strictly belong to higher education institutions and therefore adds to
the frustration/irritation in the professional lives of academics.
In the opinion of academics, universities furthermore grant greater
recognition to research, probably to the frustration of those who are
more inclined towards teaching. In response to the item whether their
institutions give recognition to research when taking personnel
decisions, the average South African academic's response is 2.87,
i.e. on the positive side of neutral.
There are also contradictions with regard to the acknowledgement
that universities give to academics' community service activities
in institutional policy and practice. South African participants
responded on the 'disagree' side of neutral to all three of
the following questions regarding personnel policies and practices at
their institutions:
* consideration is given to the relevance/applicability of work
experience outside of academia,
* academic staff with work experience outside academia are
recruited,
* academics are encouraged to become involved in community service
activities and entrepreneurial activities outside of academia.
Respondents apparently seem to experience problems with the
perception that their own, as well as their colleagues' work is not
taken into consideration when staff decisions are taken, that work
experience outside the academy is not being taken into account when
staff are recruited, and that academics are not encouraged to get
involved in community/society by means of service and entrepreneurial
activities. These perceptions can be construed as
frustrations/irritations for South African academics. They characterize
their research as socially oriented and aimed at improving society, yet
they perceive their universities not to be supporting them or
encouraging them in this regard.
Table 5 highlights the problem of academic professional
non-fulfillment. Approximately one fifth of South African respondents
(11.42% plus 7.61% with as many as 30% of them responding neutrally)
appear not to experience job satisfaction in the academic profession,
despite the fact that their working conditions have improved marginally
in recent times. Approximately one quarter of South African academics
regard their jobs as a source of considerable personal strain (with more
than 28% neutral). About one quarter of South African academics are of
the opinion that the present would be a poor time for any young person
to commence with an academic career (with approximately 17% of them
feeling neutral about this matter). Table 5 clearly shows a degree of
job dissatisfaction and professional non-fulfillment among approximately
a quarter of South African respondents. In the cases of China and
Argentina the picture is more favorable than in South Africa, though
still far from satisfactory. In their cases, respectively 42.3% and
40.6% of academics do not rate their overall job satisfaction as very
high or high (cf table 5).
As indicated, the reasons for respondents' job dissatisfaction
can be detected in various facets of the academic profession. The fact
that the individual academic scholar perceives having relatively little
influence at departmental, school/faculty, and institutional management
levels can, indeed, be construed as contributing to the experience of
professional non-fulfillment among academics. The same applies for the
bureaucratic management style and cumbersome administrative processes at
universities. For example, as pointed out, in Malaysia 85% of academics
feel only a little influential or not influential at all at
institutional level, while in Mexico only 22.2% of academics feel
influential at institutional level.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Although data on all five countries are not available with respect
to each factor investigated, the data nevertheless seem to be sufficient
enough for painting a general picture of the extent to which academics
in Third World countries enjoy fulfillment in their occupation.
The national contexts in which Third World academics find
themselves require teaching and research in equal measure. Although a
large percentage of respondents in the CAP-survey agree with this, there
are those who give preference to one or the other and who might
experience non-fulfillment if they have to devote time and energy to the
other as well. The higher educational institutions in which they find
themselves, give preference to research as far as personnel policy and
resource allocation are concerned-- which can also be construed as a
source of non-fulfillment for those giving preference to teaching.
Respondents' stated preference for practically and socially
oriented research (required by national contexts, but not provided for
by institutional policy and practice) is not reflected in their research
activities or community service profiles. This discordance could also be
construed as a source of professional non-fulfillment. Approximately one
third of academics seem to lead unfulfilled professional lives. The
survey shows a disparity between the academic values subscribed to by
(at least some of) the respondents and those of their institutional and
national contexts. As long as this mismatch exists, academics in the
Third World will experience their profession as non-fulfilling. As many
as a quarter to a third of the respondents indicated that they find
themselves in a professional environment full of contradictions,
frustrations and irritations - to the extent that a significant number
of them will not choose the academic profession as a career if they had
the chance to do so again.
For the well-being of both the profession and the higher education
sector in the Third World, these irritations and obstacles in the way of
professional academic fulfillment should be removed. University
authorities should consider attaching more weight to teaching, accept
that at least some academics are professional teachers rather than
researchers and vice versa, and also strive at attaining a better
balance between teaching, research and community service. They should
furthermore take measures to ensure an intake of more appropriately
equipped and prepared students. The authorities should finally attempt
to accomplish better communication (less 'managerialistic' and
top-down) with staff, and to set up an administration that is more
supportive of research and that is more streamlined. They should also
find ways of granting academics more voice in institutional structures
such as in their own academic departments, and to increase their
involvement in society through academically-oriented community service.
NOTES
(1.) Y. Waghid,.. "Universities and Public Goods.". In:
E. Bitzer,. Higher Education in South Africa. (Stellenbosch: SUNPress,
2009), pp. 71-84, p, 82. According to Waghid, only if universities are
prepared to take seriously the cultivation of the virtues of democratic
deliberation, compassionate imagining and cosmopolitan justice can we
begin to revive the university systems on the African continent.
According to him, the teaching of these virtues invariably creates the
possibility for universities to make a constructive contribution towards
advancing socio-economic development. In this way they begin to take
more seriously their public role.
(2.) L. Hattingh, . 'n Teorie van Waardes. (A theory of
values.) Unpublished Doctor's thesis, Johannesburg, Rand Afrikaans
University, 1991.
(3.) M.C. De Kock,. Die opstel, evaluering en voorlopige toepassing
van 'n waardevraelys aan matriekleerlinge. (The compilation,
evaluation and preliminary application of a value questionnaire for
matriculants.) Unpublished Master's dissertation, Potchefstroom,
Potchefstroom University, 1971, passim.
(4.) L. Hattingh, 'n Teorie van Waardes
(5.) Also refer S. Blackburn,. Dictionary of Philosophy. (Oxford:
Oxford, University Press, 1996). p. 390.
(6.) M. Halstead, Foreword. In: D.N. Aspin, D. N. & J.D.
Chapman, (eds.). Values education and lifelong learning. (Dordrecht:
Springer, 2007), p. xiii.
(7.) L.Hattingh, "n Teorie van Waardes, pp. 120-131.
(8.) E.G. Andrew,. The Genealogy of Values. (Lanham, MD: Rowman
& Littlefield Publishers, 1995). pp. 7-8.
(9.) J. Gray,. Straw dogs. (London, Granta Books, 2003), p. 58.
(10.) Ibid, p. 61.
(11.) Ibid., p. 106.
(12.) J. Gray. Gray's Anatomys, p. 23, p. 25.
(13.) G. Zecha,." Opening the Road to Values Education."
In: D.N. Aspin, J.D. Chapman, Values Education and Lifelong Learning. (
Dordrecht: Springer, 2007).pp. 48-60, p. 55.
(14.) H. La Follette,. Ethics in Practice. (Malden, Blackwell,
2007) p. 3.
(15.) This point is stressed by M. Olivier, ."How do Academics
Handle Their Job-Related Stress?" South African Journal of Higher
Education, 19, 2005 (2):345-358, 357. According to her, management
should be aware of the emotional exhaustion suffered by academic
staff, and take the necessary steps to ameliorate the situation. Also
see M.A.J. Olivier,, M.J.P.. De Jager, P. Grootboom, & K.B. Tokota,
"Work Wellness: A Prerequisite for Effective Education in Higher
Education Institutions." South African Journal of Higher Education,
19, 2005 (5):912-930, 919.
(16.) L.Hattingh, "n Teorie van Waardes,.,pp. 200-210.
(17.) P. Van Zyl, Opvoedkunde. (Education). Part I. (Braamfontein,
De Jong, 1975).,p. 105.
(18.) Cf. K. A. Feldman.." Research Productivity and Scholarly
Accomplishment of College Teachers as Related to Their Instructional
Effectiveness. Research in Higher Education 26, 1987 (3): 227-298,
passim.
(19.) L. Sutherland, L. C.C. Wolhuter," Do Good Researchers
Make Good Teachers?" Perspectives in Education, 20, 2002 (30):
77-83, passim.
(20.) J.F. Galaz-fontez, L. Padilla-Gonzales, M. Gil-Anton, J.J.
Sevilla-Garcia, J.L. Arcos-Vega, K.J. Martinez-Stac, S. Martinez-Romo,
G.A. Sanchez-De-Aparicio-y-Benitez, L. Jimenez-Lozd, L. &
M..E.Barrera-Bustillos, "Mexican Academics at the Turn of the
Twenty-First Century: who are they and how do they perceive their work,
institutions and public policies? (a preliminary analysis)." In:
Research Institute for Higher Education. The Changing Academic
Profession in International Comparative and Quantitative
Perspectives.(Hiroshima: Research Institute for Higher Education,
Hiroshima University, 2008), pp. 345-361, p. 349.
(21.) Cf. W.D. Locke, . (ed.). Governance and Management m Higher
Education: The Perspective of the Academy. (New York, Springer. (In
press); E. Webster, . & S. Mosoetsa, 2002 At the chalk face:
Managerialism and the changing academic workplace (1995-2000).
Transformation, p. 48:pp. 59-82; I.M. Ntshoe, P.L. Higgs; L.G. Higgs,
& C.C. Wolhuter. "Corporation, Managerialism and the new Higher
Education Environment in South Africa.'" South African Journal
of Higher Education, 22, 2008(2):pp. 391-403; C.C.Wolhuter, P. Higgs,
L.G. Higgs, & I.M. Ntshoe, "Recklessly Incorporated by a Fifth
Column: The South African academic profession facing institutional
governance." In: W.D.Locke, (ed.). Governance and Management in
Higher Education: The perspective of the Academy. A.A. Razak, K.
Sarjit,. & S. Morshidi, S.. Restructuring of university governance.
In: Kell, P. & Vogl, G. (eds.) Higher Education in the Asia Pacific:
Challenges for the future. (Newcastle, Cambridge Scholars Publishing,
2007), pp. 61-83.
(22.) A.C. Sparkes. "Embodiment, Academics, and the Audit
Culture: A Story Seeking Consideration." Qualitative Research 7,
2007 (4):pp. 521-550.
(23.) See the next section.
(24.) M. Jantan, & M. Sirat,. Governance and Decision-Making
Related to Academic Activities: The Case of Higher Educational
Institutions in Malaysia. In: Research Institute for Higher Education.
The Changing Academic Profession in International Comparative and
Quantitative Perspectives. (Hiroshima, Research Institute for Higher
Education, Hiroshima University, 2008),:pp. 203-226, p. 203.
(25.) J.A. Galaz-fontez, et al., ,"Mexican Academics at the
Turn of the Twenty-First Century, p. 346.
(26.) Y. Fengqiao, C. Yuan,. Analyses of the Educational
Backgrounds and Career Paths of Faculty in Higher Education Institutions
in Beijing Municipality, China. In: Research Institute for Higher
Education. The Changing Academic Profession in International Comparative
and Quantitative Perspectives. (Hiroshima, Research Institute for Higher
Education, Hiroshima University, 2008), pp. 265 -292, p. 265.
(27.) Ibid.
(28.) M. Marquina, & F. Lamarra,. The academic profession in
Argentina: characteristics and trends in the context of mass higher
education systems. In: Research Institute for Higher Education. The
Changing Academic Profession in International Comparative and
Quantitative Perspectives. (Hiroshima, Research Institute for Higher
Education, Hiroshima University, 2008), pp. 363-387, p. 371.
(29.) Ibid., p. 374.
(30.) J.D. Jansen, . "Changes and continuities in South
Africa's higher education system, 1994- 2004." In: Chisholm,
R. (Ed.). Changing Class: Education and Social Change in Post-Apartheid
South Africa.( Pretoria, HSRC Press, 2004); C. Bundy, C.,. "Global
patterns, local options? Some implications for South Africa of
international changes in higher education." Perspectives in
Education ,23(2005)(2), pp. 85-98.
(31.) C.C. Wolhuter, C.C. Sociaal-wetenschappelijke literatuur over
onderwijs in Zuid-Afrika: Van verzuiling tot eensgezindheid vanuit
verscheidenheid. Pedagogische Studien (Netherlands) 76 1999)pp. 361-370.
(32.) N. Warner, N. "Contextual Co-operation with Universities
in Africa." In: J. Van der Elst,. & CC. Wolhuter, C.C. (eds).
Internationalization and Human Resource Development in the African
Union: Challenges for the tertiary education sector (Proceedings of the
7th International Conference of IEASA, International Education
Association of South Africa, Potchefstroom Campus, 3-6 September 2006).
(Noordbrug, Platinum Press, ), pp. 262-271.
(33.) Republic of South Africa, Ministry of Education.. Manifesto
on values, education and democracy. (Pretoria, Department of Education,
2001).
(34.) J.J. Steyn,. & C.C. Wolhuter. "The education System
and Probable Societal Trends of the Twenty-First Century." In: H.J.
Steyn, & C.C. Wolhuter, (eds). Education Systems: The Challenges of
the 21st Century. (Noordbrug, Keurkopie, 2008), pp. 1-34, pp. 12-32.
(35.) J. Hartog, J. & H. Oosterbeek, H.." Health, Wealth
and Happiness: Why Pursue a Higher Education?" Economics of
Education Review, 17 (1998), pp. 245-56; C. Belfield, & D. Harris,
"How well do theories of job matching explain variations in job
satisfaction across education levels? Evidence for UK". Applied
Economics, 34, (2002), pp. 535-548.
(36.) Steyn & Wolhuter, " The Education System and
Probable Societal Trends in the Twenty-First Century."pp. 12-32.
(37.) D. Hay, "Quality Research in South African Higher
Education: Illusions, Imperatives and Ideals." South African
Journal of Higher Education, 14(1) (2000);pp. 53-61, p. 55.
(38.) N. Botha. "Some Current Curriculum Issues in South
African Higher Education". In: Bitzer, Higher education in South
Africa., pp.155-177, p. 176.
(39.) M. Gibbons. "Innovation and the Developing System of
Knowledge Production."
http://www.eprost.sfu.ca/summer/papers/Michael.Gib bons.htm/).
(40.) W.L. Holderness, M.A.J. Olivier,. & D.J.L.Venter,
'Tempus fugit'; tempers fly: Time (mis)management at a South
African university. South African Journal of Higher Education,
19(4)(2005) pp. 699-714, p. 708.
(41.) Waghid, "Universities and Public Goods," 74.
(42.) F.M. Nafukho "The Market Model of Financing State
Universities in Kenya: Some Innovative Lessons." In: T.Zeleza,.
& A. Olukoshi, A. (eds). African Universities in the Twenty-First
Century. (Dakar: Codesria, 2004), pp. 126-139, passim.
(43.) Ibid.
(44.) A.C. D'Addio, T. Eriksson, & P. Frijters, P. An
Analysis of the Determinants of Job Satisfaction when Individuals'
Baseline Satisfaction Levels May Differ. (Copenhagen, Institute of
Economics, 2003); K.A. Bender, K.A. & J.S. Heywood, "Job
Satisfaction of the Highly Educated: The Role of Gender, Academic
Tenure, and Comparison Income" [Electronic Version]. Retrieved 15
July 2009 from http://www.nber.org/~sewp/events/2004.05.28/BenderHeywood- Jobsatofthehighlyeducated.pdf.
(45.) C.Z. Jones,. Factors Affecting African-American Counsellors.
Job Satisfaction: A National Study. (Virginia:, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, 2005). (Full-length research thesis) p.
165.
(46.) F. Fukuyama, . Trust: the Social Virtues and the Creation of
Prosperity. (New York, Free Press., 1996)
(47.) Accessible at: www.capstudy.org The authors of this article
may be contacted for a copy of the questionnaire itself.
(48.) R.M. Jaeger, (ed.). "Complementary Methods for Research
in Education,". Washington, American Educational Research
Association, 1988, p. 326.
(49.) Cf. J.L. Smith. Old Fourlegs: The Story of the Coelacanth.
(London, Longman, 1956) p. 16; Marquina & Lamarra, The academic
profession in Argentina, p. 365.
(50.) Cf. M. Hall, Universities do serve communities: But a fresh
approach to how community engagement is understood is needed. Mail &
Guardian: Higher Learning Supplement, 17-23 April 2009:pp. 2-3.
(51.) Data for Mexico: Galaz-Fontes ,et al., "Mexican
academics at the turn of the twenty-first century," p. 353;
Argentina: Marquina & Lamarra, The academic profession in Argentina,
p. 377.
(52.) Galaz-Fontes, "Mexican Academics at the Turn of the
Twenty-First Century," p. 354.
(53.) U. Teichler. Academic Staff in Germany per aspera or ad
astra? In: Research Institute for Higher Education. The Changing
Academic Profession in International Comparative and Quantitative
Perspectives. Hiroshima, Research Institute for Higher Education, 2008,
p. 144.
(54.) H. Coates, L. Goedgebuure, J. Van Der Lee, and L. Meek, The
Australian Academic Profession: A First Overview. In: Research Institute
for Higher Education. The Changing Academic Profession in International
Comparative and Quantitative Perspectives. Hiroshima, Research Institute
for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, 2008), pp.179-202, p. 197.
(55.) Galaz-Fonte et al., "Mexican academics at the turn of
the twenty-first century," p. 356.
(56.) Argentina: Marquina & Lamarra, The Academic Profession in
Argentina; China: H. Shen,. Progress in the Academic Profession in
Mainland China. In: Research Institute for Higher Education. The
Changing Academic Profession in International Comparative and
Quantitative Perspectives. Hiroshima, Research Institute for Higher
Education, Hiroshima University, 2008), pp. 251-264.
(57.) Ibid., p. 261.
(58.) Ibid.
(59.) Ibid.
(60.) Galaz-Fontes "Mexican Academics at the Turn of the
Twenty-First Century," p. 356.
(61.) Jantan & Sirat, "Goverenance and Decision-Making
Related to Academic Activities," p. 215.
(62.) Ibid.
(63.) Ibid.
(64.) Galaz-Fontes "Mexican Academics at the Turn of the
Twenty-First Century," p. 357.
(65.) Ibid.
By Johannes L van der Walt, Charl Wolhuter, Ferdinand Potgieter,
Philip Higgs, Leonie Higgs, and Isaac Ntshoe *
* Johannes L van der Walt, Charl Wolhuter, Ferdinand Potgieter
teach at the NorthWest University, Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa,
while Philip Higgs. Leonie Higgs and Isaac Ntshoe teach at the
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. All correspondence
related to this paper should be directed to Johannes C van der Walt at:
jlvdwalt@aerosat.co.za
Table 1: Preferences of the Third World Academic Professionals on the
Teaching-Research Continuum (Percentages) (51)
Preferences Mexico Argentina South Africa
Primarily Teaching 17.6 10.0 18.16
Both, but leaning towards
teach 39.9 38.2 35.44
Both, but leaning toward
research 36.5 45.0 36.79
Primarily Research 6.0 6.8 9.61
Total Predominantly Teaching 57.5 48.2 53.60
Total Predominantly Research 42.5 51.8 48.40
Table 2: Distribution of responses by South African academics to the
statement "teaching and research are not reconcilable with each other"
(percentages)
Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Disagree Mean Standard
Totally Totally Deviation
1 2 3 4 5
7.97 12.93 18.95 25.56 34.59 3.68 1.28
Table 4: Academics' depiction of their own research
Description Mean response on Standard Deviation
five point scale: 1: to
a great extend, 3:
neutral, 5: not at all
Basic/Theoretical 2.58 1.08
Applied/Practically 2.05 1.07
oriented
Commercially 3.75 1.07
oriented/Aimed at
technology transfer
Socially 2.18 1.32
oriented/Aimed at the
improvement of
society
Table 5: Academics' responses to items pertaining to job satisfaction
(percentages) (56)
Very High Neutral Low Very
High Low
(very (very
positive) negative)
Evaluation of general job
satisfaction
South Africa 12.59 39.09 29.28 11.42 7.61
China 4.2 53.5 Not Not Not
Available Available Available
Argentina 18.2 43.2 30.0 6.4 2.1
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
My job is a source of
considerable tension
South Africa 13.15 21.08 28.31 20.48 16.57
If I had it all over again
I would not become an
academic
South Africa 12.82 10.41 15.99 20.36 40.42
