Co-relational study of body types and fundamental neurotic reactions among adolescents of urban sector of Peshawar, Pakistan.
Nizam, Ghazala Y. ; Tariq, Mussarat ; Ijaz, Ayesha Anwar Ayesha 等
1. INTRODUCTION
The potential effect of body type on personality and psychological
well being has been a source of concern and researcher interest since
the evolution of human beings. Many scholars believe that behaviour is
related to individual's physical makeup or body. (Hall &
Lindzey, 1970; John, 1986; Heymsfield, 2005; Bouchard, 1996; Shasby and
Kingsley, 1978).
The purpose of the present research was to study the impact of body
type and body image on behaviour of adolescents. To achieve the ideal
body type is getting so much importance among adolescents that those who
deviate from normal body weight tend to develop neurotic patterns.
As an approach to personality theory, typology has a history dating
back to the ancient Greeks and was brought up to modern times by Sheldon
and his collaborators (1942) as constitutional psychology. Sheldon
stands for unique contribution on this aspect and provide a discrete
number of physical and temperamental variables which he considered of
primary importance in representing human behaviour. Considerable period
of careful examining and judgment on physiques variations gave the
primary components of physique. The first component was
'endomorphy,' the individuals high in this component are
typified by softness and rounded quality is an underdevelopment of bone
and muscle. The second component was referred to as
'mesomorphy'. A person high in this component has a hard and
rectangular body, with a predominance of bone and muscle. The
'mesomorphic' body is strong, tough, and resistant to injury.
The third component was labelled 'ectomorphy'. An individual
who is at upper extreme in this component is linear and fragile,
characterised by flatness of the chest and delicacy of the body.
Sheldon also identified three components of personality and
discovered that there is correlation between physique and personality.
The correlations are significant, indicating that endomorphs are more
likely to have personalities strong in 'vicerotonia' (very
sociable and outgoing). Mesomorphs are more likely to have personalities
strong in 'somatotonia', (energetic and aggressive), and
ectomorphs are more likely to have personalities strong in
'cerebrotonia' (shy and inhibited). Nash (1978) supported the
Sheldonian perspective, that primary components serve to set limits upon
a classified physique but within any single somatotype classification
there is still room for tremendous variation. This variation is in part
intercepted or accounted for by a series of secondary components. One of
the most important secondary components is 'dysplasia'. It is
a measure of disharmony between different areas of the physique, for
example, head and neck of one somatotype and legs of another. Sheldon
(1954) also did considerable work in the area of female somatotyping. He
suggested that female's physiques are much more endomorphics than
that of males.
It has been estimated by Stunkard (2000) that as many as twenty
five percent of today's adolescents are obese. For him the societal
modernisation tends to increase obesity in adolescents. These are much
more likely to face both health and psychological challenges related to
their childhood and adolescence than their leaner counterparts,
(Andersen, 2000).
Appearance tends to play an important role in one's
self-esteem whereas body weight can be another factor for determining
attractiveness. It is estimated by Tiggemann (1996) that current body
ideals may promote slimness for women and muscularity for males and
consequently, females have reported a desire to be thinner while males
wanted to be heavier. Body image disturbance in this sense has been
defined by Smolak (2004) as any form of affective, cognitive,
behavioural, or perceptual disturbance that is directly concerned with
an aspect of physical appearance. He suggested that body dissatisfaction
for both men and women as well as for adolescents has been shown to be
correlated with BMI, that is calculation of body weight that normally
goes with the given height.
It is assumed that adolescence is the time when many individuals
become concerned about their appearance. As a result they take drastic
and sometimes dangerous measures to develop a certain appearance and if
they do not succeed, they may develop neurotic behaviour reactions such
as severe depression, anxiety and stress. Supporting the same view,
Stassen (2000) demonstrated that adolescence is one of the most
turbulent periods in one's life span. It is the period when one
becomes sexually mature and gets integrated into the society. Stassen
further reported that a wide variety of physical changes in the
adolescence bring about anxiety, self consciousness, changes in body
image and various emotional changes. Berger (2000) also supported the
above view that an adolescent is very much self conscious about his/her
looks. At this age most boys wanted to be tall, broad shouldered and
girls wanted to be pretty slim but shapely with nice hair and skin.
Teenage boys and girls both worry about their weight, complexion and
facial features.
As adolescence is a time of dramatic changes in physical
appearance, (although a variety of nutritional and behavioural factors
can also lead to weight gain during this stage), gaining weight can
sometimes result directly from the physical changes of puberty. Mellits
and Cheek (1970) reported that in adolescence boys and girls differ
considerably in the development of adipose (fat-bearing) tissues. With
increased height females' show a more marked growth of fat than
males. Thompson (2005) cited that an obese and skinny person has a
distorted perception of his/her body shape and size, compares it to
others, and sometimes feels shame and anxiety. Being unhappy with
one's body can affect how the person thinks and feels about
him/herself. A poor body image can lead to emotional distress, low
self-esteem, dieting, anxiety, depression, and eating disorders like
anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
Mood and anxiety symptoms are ostensibly more likely a common
consequence of starvation among people with or without eating disorders
and tend to correlate with weight and body image disturbances. To be
thin is considered healthy, attractive, and self-disciplined. Overweight
individual is considered as lazy, dull, unattractive, and probably
incompetent. Obesity has many psychological as well as bio chemical
facets. In most cultures slimness is admired and obesity is deplored and
because of that obese adolescents may have difficulty in establishing
social relations because of derogatory cultural attitudes. Rightly or
wrongly, the fat person is likely to blame him/herself for being what
s/he is (Garner, 1997).
Another major cause of developing poor body image is believed to be
the influence of mass media. Lerner and Steinberg (2004) argue that the
mass media, including movies, television, and magazines, have come under
fire from academics and members of the public for their sexualisation of
young girls, the portrayal of violence, and the perpetuation of gender
stereotypes and unrealistic expectations for body weight and appearance.
Due to its influence, television has received special attention as a
purveyor of messages containing gender stereotypes (Tiggemann and
Pickering, 1996).
The television therefore becomes a matter of concern as media plays
a big part in making girls overly concerned about their weight and body
shape. They strive for the 'perfect' body and judge themselves
by their looks, appearance, and above all thinness. Media surrounded by
thin models and TV stars makes teenagers want to achieve the
'perfect' image. As a result, many teenage girls intensely
dislike their bodies. These views tend to wear girls down and can shake
their confidence and esteem. They may lose their sense of self,
individuality and fall victim to 'narrow' definitions of
beauty as portrayed by the media which may act as a propaganda machine
determined to shake their confidence.
Smolak (2002) found that these extreme body image disturbances
include body dysmorphic disorder, eating disorders and severe
depression, anxiety and stress among adolescent girls. Rierdan and Koff
(1997) supported the view that weight has a direct effect on body image
and mood of girls. He conducted an experiment with sixth grade girls to
find out how their weight affected their body image and they concluded
that girls with a higher BMI tend to have more depressive symptoms.
A concern about body image has traditionally been thought to be a
female preoccupation However; societal and cultural trends suggest that
body image concerns may also affect males. Hendry & Gilles, (1978)
found that adolescent male is vulnerable to the pressure to attain the
'ideal' male body. This ideal includes a masculine (V-shaped)
physique, tallness, and muscularity (mesomorphic body builds). The
current understanding of the etiology of body image disorders in boys
and men is incomplete, restricted by limited research but Philpott and
Shcppard (1998) supported the above mentioned view that the preference
in society is toward mesomorphic males, and there is an aversion toward
endomorphic (fat) and ectomorphic (thin) males. Therefore, it is
believed that many boys and men who fall into the endomorphic or
ectomorphic category recognise that they do not fit the
'ideal' and thus strive to obtain the more mesomorphic body
that they see in television and movies, in magazines, and on romance
novel covers. The men are doomed either to spending their lives chasing
an impossible dream or to taking supplements and drugs that have very
negative effects on overall health. Additionally, Pope et al., (2000)
reported that more harmful, are the mesomorphic males who strive to
become even more muscular, looking at a body type that, for most, is
impossible to attain without the use of anabolic steroids.
Hoyt and Kogan (2001) discovered that, on average, men tend to
emphasise physical attractiveness in relationships more than women,
which might imply that even though a woman may accept her partner for
his looks, the man may continue to be dissatisfied with himself. With
the increasing emphasis in the media of a lean yet muscular male body as
the ideal, it is no wonder that so many boys and men are becoming
dissatisfied with their own bodies and are paying incredible costs to
achieve the 'perfect' body.
Keel et al. (1998) further revealed that, like their female
counterparts, males have disordered eating and dietary habits that many
times occur in the absence of significant weight problems, and that this
disordered eating appears to be more psychological than physical.
Finally, Keel et al. reported that eating-disordered boys experience
great body dissatisfaction, depression and perfectionism, as do
eating-disordered females. Nath (2004) on the other hand suggested that
physical exercise and games are important for physical development in
adolescence. The well balanced body shows apt proportion between length
and weight. The present research supports the evidences that suggests
strong relationship between deviation from societal standards for body
types and the development of depression, anxiety and stress.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Statement of the Problem:
The study of relationship between constitutional variation and
fundamental neurotic reactions among adolescents of NWFP.
2.2 Objectives:
1. To find out the level of depression, anxiety and stress among
people with different body types.
2. To compare scores of male and female of various body types on
DASS.
2.3 Hypotheses:
1. Body types tend to be related to the presence of clinical
symptoms especially, depression, and girls are more likely to be
depressed.
2. Deviation from the standard body type tends to cause anxiety
among adolescents and girls are more likely to be anxious.
3. In order to get the ideal body size the ectomorphs and
endomorphs tend to experience more stress.
2.4 Sample
The samples of 180 adolescents were randomly selected from various
colleges of Peshawar district. The sample consisted of 60 obese, 60
optimal and 60 under weight boys and girls. Adolescents of 11th to 13th
grade were targeted. Criterion of selection was their body weight that
was identified by calculating their BMI which is a statistical measure
of the weight for a person scaled according to height. United States of
America Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A) defined BMI as the
individual's body weight in kilogram divided by the square of their
height. Adolescents who had a BMI of 18.5 to 25 may indicate optimal
weight and adolescents with BMI lower than 18.5 were considered as
underweight, whereas adolescents with BMI above 30 were considered as
obese (over 40, morbidly obese).
2.5 Procedure
Self constructed questionnaire was designed to collect the
demographic data. The standard scale known as DASS was the measuring
instrument for this study. DASS is a 42-item self-report measure of
anxiety, depression and stress developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995)
which is increasingly used in diverse settings.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study was designed to find out the relationship of body types
with the neurotic behaviour reactions among adolescents. The correlation
between the body types and neurotic behaviour were determined through a
systematic procedure. The neurotic patterns were determined by
administering a standardised DASS. All the respondents were of the same
age. The average weight and BMI of the research sample indicates that
average weight of the ectomorph females was 41 kg with the BMI of 16 and
this reflected that they were under weight. The mean weight of the
mesomorph females was 52 kg with BMI of 20, which reflected the optimal
weight. The mean weight of endomorph females recorded was 75 kg with BMI
of 28 which, presents that they were over weight. In the case of male
respondents the mean weight of the ectomorphs was 50 kg with BMI of 16.
The average weight of the mesomorphs was 64 kg with BMI of 22 and mean
weight of the endomorphs recorded was 82 kg with BMI of 27.
No evidence for the presence of health problems in majority of
female and male adolescents with respect to their body types was found
although some of the endomorph females (13%) had menstrual
irregularities that could account for their obesity. The family history
of the respondents revealed a strong relationship of family history and
being under or overweight. The obese parents had obese children, whereas
under weight parents had under weight children. Dietary intake of
researched sample indicated that most of the ectomorphs (42%) used to
take protein and vitamin rich food and 23% used to eat take away food.
Mesomorphs used to take balanced diet, whereas 35% of endomorphs used to
take diet majorly comprised of carbohydrates and fat. The frequency
distribution of female respondents indicate that female were more
depressed, anxious and under stress than males. Although the male
respondents showed low signs of depression, anxiety and stress the study
detected presence of neurotic patterns among male respondents.
The collected data reveals the presence of depression among all the
three categories. Depression has been recognised as a major public
health problem as it is ranked fourth among the global burden of
diseases. The analysed data in table 1 concluded that endomorphs and
ectomorphs had moderate depression level i.e. M = 17.9, SD = 5.9; M =
16.4, SD = 5.2 respectively. Whereas mesomorphs had mild depression
level, i.e. M = 11.1, SD = 3.5. Statistical analysis showed that
endomorphs had significantly high depression than the mesomorphs, t
(7.6); p > 0.05 two tailed. Analysis revealed the significant
difference for depression among ectomorphs than mesomorphs, t (6.5); p
> 0.05 two tailed.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Severe anxiety among ectomorphs (M = 18.1, SD = 4.8) and endomorphs
(M = 17.4, SD = 4.9) were found than mesomorphs who had moderate level
of anxiety (M = 9.9, SD = 2.9). The t-test showed significant difference
for anxiety among ectomorphs and mesomorphs, t (11.1); p > 0.05. On
the other hand, t - statistics has shown no significant difference for
stress among ectomorphs and endomorphs, t (-1.47); p > .0.05.
Moderate level of stress was found among endomorphs (M = 22.8, SD = 7.5)
and ectomorphs (M = 18.6, SD = 6.5), whereas mesomorphs had mild level
of stress. (M = 16.1, SD = 4.5). Statistical analysis revealed
significant difference for stress among endomorphs and mesomorphs, t
(5.9); p > 0.05, two tailed.
Table 2 highlights the gender comparison on the three sub scales of
DASS. The results showed that females were more likely to be depressed,
anxious and under stress than males. Statistical analysis revealed
significant high level of depression (t = 6.3; p > 0.05) among
females. Similarly, females appeared more anxious than males (t = 5.1; p
> 0.05). Further more t- statistic showed significant difference for
gender on stress. Females appeared to be more under stress than males (t
= 9.3); p > 0.05 two tailed. Also, females developed more signs of
neuroses than males contemporaries.
Table 3 represents the mean and standard deviation scores on sub
scores of depression. The depression sub scores included dysphoria,
hopelessness, devaluation of life, self-deprecation, lack of
interest/involvement, anhedonia, and inertia. The level of hopelessness
was higher among endomorphs (M = 1.1, SD = .96) than ectomorphs (M =
.66, SD = .89). On the other hand ectomorphs scored high on devaluation
of life (M = 3.4, SD = 1.2) than endomorphs (M = 2.8, SD = 1.1). The
situational anxiety is significantly high among endomorphs (M = 4.3, SD
= 1.9) than among ectomorphs (M = 3.9, SD = 2.1). The level of
subjective anxious effect was also significantly high among ectomorphs
(M = 5.6, SD = 1.6) than endomorphs (M = 4.9, SD = 1.9). The ectomorphs
were found to get more easily upset (M = 4.4, SD = 1.6) than endomorphs
(M = 4.0, SD = 1.5).
Table 4 represents the factor matrix for DASS. The statistical
procedure of Pearson r was used to determine the relationship of body
type and neurotic behaviour patterns. The results determined the
significant negative correlation on sub scores on DASS with gender.
Almost all the sub scores of DASS were significantly correlated with
each other, which further indicates the interdependency of these
factors.
4. Suggestions and limitations
A research fills the gap in knowledge and provides grounds for
further research. When undertaking a research project, one should first
determine its suitability in terms of internal and personal factors. On
the basis of present experience, it is suggested that other researchers
can explore other aspects of body types, for instance, body types and
psychological well being, level of aggression among different body
types, social adjustment and social anxiety among different body types.
It is also suggested that researchers should cover all the important
aspects of the subject and carefully construct the questionnaire for
better results. The reliability and validity of any standard test should
be carefully checked. It is also suggested that researchers must
disclose the socio economics status and other environmental and
psychological factors related to body types and behaviour.
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Dr. Ghazala Y. Nizam, Mussarat Tariq, Ayesha Anwar Ayesha Ijaz
Email: (CorrespondingAuthor) neeshy1@yahoo.com
Table 1
Ectomorph Endomorph Ectomorph
vs. vs. vs.
Endomorph Mesomorph Mesomorph
DASS
T p T p T p
Depression 6.5 0.05 7.6 0.05 -1.47 m.s
Anxiety 11.0 0.05 9.9 0.05 0.73 m.s
Stress 2.4 0.05 5.9 0.05 -3.3 m.s
Table 2
Differences between the mean on DASS for Gender
Gender/ Female Male t P
DASS
M SD M SD
Depression 17.6 6.5 6.3 12.6 3.5 0.05
Anxiety 17.2 6.3 5.1 13.1 4.1 0.05
Stress 23.1 6.5 9.3 15.2 4.6 0.05
Table 3
DASS sub scores.
DASS sub-scores Ectomorphs Mesomorphs Endomorphs
(n = 60) (n = 60) (n = 60)
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Depression sub-score 16.4 5.2 11.1 3.5 17.9 5.9
Dysphoria 3.7 1.6 2.3 1.4 3.3 1.3
Hopelessness .66 .89 .63 .91 1.1 .96
Devaluation of life 3.4 1.2 2.8 1.0 2.8 1.1
Self-deprecation 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.9 1.5
Lack of interest/
involvement 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.2 2.1 1.4
Anhedonia 1.8 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.7 1.2
Inertia 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.4 2.2 1.5
Anxiety sub-score 18.1 4.8 9.9 2.9 17.4 4.9
Autonomic arousal 5.8 2.2 4.4 2.5 6.3 3.7
Skeletal musculature
effects 3.2 1.1 2.1 1.1 3.0 1.3
Situational anxiety 3.9 2.1 3.2 1.2 4.3 1.9
Subjective anxious
affect 5.6 1.6 3.9 1.3 4.9 1.9
Stress sub-score 18.6 6.5 22.8 7.58 22.8 7.5
Difficulty relaxing 4.0 2.0 2.8 1.9 4.1 2.4
Nervous arousal 2.9 1.4 2.7 .92 3.0 1.2
Easily upset/agitated 4.4 1.6 3.8 1.4 4.0 1.5
Irritable/over-reactive 3.2 1.4 2.3 1.6 3.3 1.9
Impatient 3.8 1.2 3.4 .96 4.0 1.3
Table 4 (A)--Factor Matrix of DASS Scale
B.T D A S D1
Gender .000 -.428 ** -.362 ** -.575 ** -.362 **
Body type .107 -.048 .253 ** -.102
D .634 ** .593 ** .549 **
A .516 ** .509 **
S .377 **
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
A1
A2
A3
A4
S1
S2
S3
S4
D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Gender -.029 -.333 ** -.276 ** -.211 ** -.107
Body type .221 ** -.193 ** -.014 .125 -.026
D .291 ** .379 ** .542 ** .496 ** .375 **
A .185 * .322 ** .399 ** .326 ** .280 **
S .252 ** .279 ** .443 ** .389 ** .212 **
D1 .019 .499 ** .263 ** .246 ** .132
D2 -.005 .214 ** .082 .131
D3 .145 .189 * .088
D4 .259 ** .127
D5 .218 **
D6
D7
A1
A2
A3
A4
S1
S2
S3
S4
D7 A1 A2 A3 A4
Gender -.378 ** -.304 ** -.427 ** -.196 ** -.455 **
Body type .009 .073 -.075 .091 -.144
D .589 ** .357 ** .514 ** .403 ** .467 **
A .426 ** .423 ** .625 ** .497 ** .645 **
S .375 ** .408 ** .434 ** .445 ** .386 **
D1 .353 ** .151 * .481 ** .288 ** .458 **
D2 .202 ** -.005 .094 .275 ** .109
D3 .149 * .062 .309 ** .136 .284 **
D4 .309 ** .264 ** .299 ** .271 ** .341 **
D5 .231 ** .152 * .232 ** .153 * .081
D6 .194 ** .131 .184 ** .191 * .127
D7 .120 .294 ** .275 ** .376 **
A1 .354 ** .263 ** .380 **
A2 .245 ** .470 **
A3 .317 **
A4
S1
S2
S3
S4
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Gender -.362 ** -.230 ** -.384 ** -.217 ** -.319 **
Body type -.086 .000 -.172 * .040 -.040
D .484 ** .354 ** .318 ** .363 ** .377 **
A .413 ** .285 ** .329 ** .366 ** .335 **
S .593 ** .392 ** .437 ** .564 ** .367 **
D1 .272 ** .285 ** .315 ** .264 ** .318 **
D2 .255 ** .179 * .016 .212 ** .186 *
D3 .328 ** .301 ** .286 ** .173 * .305 **
D4 .491 ** .366 ** .183 * .251 ** .466 **
D5 .332 ** .262 ** .214 ** .130 .271 **
D6 .253 ** .074 .057 .117 .097
D7 .318 ** .314 ** .150 * 212 ** .293 **
A1 .176 * .056 .183 * .173 * .130
A2 .279 ** .307 ** .288 ** .331 ** .294 **
A3 .353 ** .198 ** .273 ** .276 ** .180 *
A4 .341 ** .198 ** .269 ** .269 ** .339 **
S1 .401 ** .417 ** .353 ** .362 **
S2 .317 ** .245 ** .251 **
S3 .281 ** .201 **
S4 .228 **
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)
