Gender equality in private college athletics: is title IX having an impact?

Frazier, John W. ; Caines, W. Royce

INTRODUCTION

In 1972, the United States Congress passed Title IX of the Omnibus Education Act requiring that institutions of provide equality in opportunities for both male and female students at higher education institutions if the institutions received any federal funding. Title IX did not refer specifically to athletic opportunities; however, subsequent interpretations and court cases have set the precedent that opportunities in athletics must also meet the requirements.

According to Staurowsky (2009), there exists a three-part test to determine compliance with Title IX in regards to athletic participation.

* "the proportionality standard where the percentage of female athletes reflects the percentage of females in the student body.

* Through a history and continuing practice of program expansion

* Through accommodating the interest and abilities of female athletes."

While instructive, the above standards fail to investigate whether schools are investing similar amounts to try to meet both the letter and the spirit of the law. It is helpful to note that it would be possible for an institution to be spending similar amounts for males and females but still not be compliant if the student body is heavily weighted to one gender per the first of the three-part tests.

This study is a spin-off from a larger study on the cost of athletics which focused on economies of scale in athletic departments. As a result of that study, the authors wished to also investigate any issues related to inequality of expenditures by gender. The choice of NCAA Division II schools without football related to the status of the schools at which the authors are employed.

Title IX was signed into law in 1972 so colleges have been operating under the provisions for over forty years. Progress has been made in women's sports since that time as colleges have tried to meet the provisions and avoid court cases that are costly and embarrassing. While many articles and books have been written on the topic, few researchers have attempted to quantitatively measure the current status of the issue.

LITERATURE REVIEW

There have been many articles and books written about gender equity in collegiate athletics since Title IX was passed in 1972. Many of these articles have focused on why Title IX was important and several have focused on case studies or legal issues related to the implementation of Title IX. For example, Rhode and Walker (2008) recently did a thorough review of legal issues and also explored the impact that Title IX has had in securing equal opportunities for women coaches. Mumford (2006) provided guidance to two-year schools on strategies that two-year schools could use to guide their efforts to achieve gender equity.

When Title IX was originally passed, it was not clear that it included athletics. Opposition to Title IX was a major cause for several groups and the NCAA and the American Football Coaches Association drew attention to the potential impact on sports while that aspect had been largely ignored by groups fighting for passage. As a result of the opposition by leaders in the field of athletics, women who were involved in college sports began to see possibilities to apply Title IX to athletics. Subsequent interpretations, regulation, and court cases brought the issue into full recognition of the applicability of Title IX to athletics (Edwards 2010).

A major problem for schools that are seriously trying to implement Title IX involves football. If a school has a football team, that sport takes a large budget to operate and typically awards a large number of scholarships for males. Thus schools that have football teams typically have a more difficult time in showing more equity. For example, a 2002 report from the National Women's Law Center showed that Women's sports in NCAA Division I institutions receive only 34 percent of the overall athletics budget at those schools. However, football receives 32 percent of the total athletics budget so if football is omitted, then the male and female expenditures are equal. While few would argue that football can be ignored as an issue, it does affect those schools who field teams for a variety of reasons. Reports and studies that focus on total numbers fail to consider (perhaps rightfully) the impact of football. For example a 1998 report by the Women's Sports Foundations focused on a Gender Equity Compliance Quotient formula that found that NCAA member institutions typically had compliance scores that ranged from .6173 for Division I schools to .7653 for Division III schools.

A 1993 report of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Gender Equity Task Force demonstrated clear evidence that suggested that the NCAA had been unsuccessful in providing equitable opportunity for women to participate in intercollegiate athletics. The book was first published in 1994 and was directed to university administrators, faculty athletics representatives, Title IX and equal opportunity officers, and student-athletes. It was intended to convey the information on landscape of gender equity law. It also provided advice and real-life examples to assist in alleviating inequalities in intercollegiate athletics National Collegiate Athletic, Association (2008).

Hoeber (2007) analyzes the differences between meaning and practice organizational members hold in regard to gender equity. Hoeber investigated the organizational value placed on gender equity in an effort to determine how gender inequity is perpetuated and embedded in the culture of the organization. The study was conducted within an organization that espoused gender equity as a core value. Data suggested there was a gap between what was espoused and what was enacted centered on a denial of gender inequities and an expectation that gender inequality was expected or normal. The study concluded that athletic departments and governing bodies should develop comprehensive policies related to gender equity. Hoeber (2007) suggested policies need to be enforced and penalties issued for non-compliance. The study concludes there continues to be resistance to the enforcement of Title IX; however, the positive outcomes it has generated for female athletes, are hard to deny.

Capranica, L., Piacentini, M., Halson, S., Myburgh, K., Ogasawara, E., & MillardStaffod, M., (2013), suggest that the gender gap in sport is closing; however, a gap still remains due to biological differences affecting performance. They suggest the gap is influenced by reduced opportunity and sociopolitical factors influencing female participation in a number of sports around the world. They argue that until the cultural environment is equitable, athletic opportunities will not be equitable. The article is intended to provide insight into issues underlying gender differences in sport performance from a global perspective.

According to Lopiano (2014) "a sea of change would occur if the NCAA were to adopt legislation tying eligibility for national championships to Title IX compliance" (6). The article cites several examples to suggest that institutions may not be in compliance with Title IX mandates. Lopiano (2014) suggests that Football Subdivision colleges and universities are spending 2.5 times more on men's athletics than they are on women's athletics. Spending on men's sports at the division I level exceeds that of women's sports by a median of 20%. Finally, since the passage of Title IX, "the number of female head coaches and female athletic directors has steadily declined" (Lopiano, 2014, p. 7). Lopiano (2014) suggests that legislation is needed to enforce compliance with Title IX federal law. "National athletic governance accociations such as the NCAA...have the power and legislative mechanisms to enforce such organizational rules. One of the guiding principles of the National Collegiate Athletic Association is that of gender equity. The organization also has a mandate to adopt legislation to enhance member institutions' compliance with Title IX. The question is whether they have the will to do so" (Lopiano, 2014, p. 7).

Similar to Lopiano who found issues with equality for NCAA Division I Football Subdivision colleges, Staurowsky (2009) found issues for two-year college athletics. According to her study, females comprise fifty-five percent (55%) of students at two-year colleges but make up only thirty-seven percent (37%). Use of time series data allowed for an analysis of trends which also showed declining as opposed to increasing opportunities for female students in athletics.

Another issue dealing with equity relates to opportunities in high schools. Though the focus of this paper is on collegiate athletics, athletes typically start their participation at a much younger age and are recruited from high schools. Pickett, Dawkins, and Braddock (2012) did a study on female participation in high school sports and found that schools that were predominantly African-American had significantly fewer athletic opportunities for females as compared to schools that were predominantly while. This indicates another element in the gender equity issue.

OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

The focus of this study was to determine if colleges in NCAA Division II are spending money equally on male and female athletics. Many earlier studies have focused on opportunities (number of teams primarily) and participation (number of athletes). The study focuses on three areas, overall dollars of financial aid for all sports by gender, overall operating expenses for the athletic program by gender, and operating expenses for basketball by gender. Basketball was chosen due to the similarity of seasons, equipment, number of participants, etc. The authors also wanted to see if the results over a ten year period were consistent. Thus the study includes data from 2003 and 2013 to see if results had changed over that time period.

The tests of hypothesis for differences in sample means were set up as shown below for each of the three variables for both 2003 and 2013 so six tests (three for each year) were calculated in all.

Ho. [[mu].sub.male spending] = [[mu].sub.female spending]

Ha. [[mu].sub.male spending] [not equal to] [[mu].sub.female spending]

METHODOLOGY

Given the null hypotheses, a test of differences of two sample means was the analysis completed for the study for each of the six hypotheses. Using Excel Data Analysis package, a students' t test was conducted in each case. The data for this study is limited to reports from the institutions that participate in NCAA Division II but do not field football teams that report data to the U.S. Department of Education under the Postsecondary Education Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act. Data for this study came from the U.S. Department of Education Office of Postsecondary Education Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act. This particular data set was limited to schools that participate in NCAA Division II who do not field football teams. Data from 2003 and 2013 were analyzed to check for time effects.

RESULTS

None of the statistical tests were significant at [alpha] =.05, Tables 1 and 2, thus none of the null hypotheses could be rejected. The smallest p-value was .269 with the largest at .8496. As a result, the data support that schools in this data set (NCAA Division II without football) are meeting the goals of Title IX. Equality was exhibited in athletic financial aid, overall operating expenses for men and women sports and expenditures on basketball by gender. Equality had been achieved by 2003 and continued in 2013.

LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY

While this study does support the hypothesis that colleges and universities have worked to meet the goals of Title IX, the results are appropriate only for the schools in the NCAA Division II who do not compete in football. Also the data is self-reported data and there is not any independent means to verify correct reporting by schools. Also, it is known if individual schools consistently allocate spending when expenditures relate to the overall program. For example, might schools allocate the expenses for the athletic director equally as opposed to considering the actual time devoted to sports by gender? Other issues may relate to allocation of funding for practice facilities, weight rooms, etc.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Further study is needed in regards to Division II schools that do compete in football. Also Division II schools typically do not generate huge revenues from their sports as only a limited number of events receive public attention at the level that men's sports at major schools receive. So further study awaits to investigate the equality of effort at similar schools that compete in football and even more importantly at Division I schools where much more attention is paid to athletics, particularly football and men's basketball.

REFERENCES

Capranica, L., Piacentini, M., Halson, S., Myburgh, K., Ogasawara, E., & Millard-Staffod, M., (2013). The gender gap in sports performance: Equity influences equality. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(1), 99-103.

Frazier, John. (2007). Existence of Economies of Scale within Athletic Departments at Private Four Year Institutions. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI, PhD dissertation, Anderson University.

Edwards, A.R. (July 2010). Why Sport? The Development of Sport as a Policy Issue in Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Journal of Policy History. 22(3), 300-336.

Gender Equity Compliance Quotient, Women's Sports Foundation. July 28, 1998. The Battle for Gender Equity in Athletics: Title IX at Thirty, A Report of the National Women's Law Center, June 2002.

Hoeber, L. (2007). Exploring the Gaps between Meanings and Practices of Gender Equity in a Sport Organization. Gender, Work & Organization, 14(3), 259-280.

Lopiano, D. A. (2014). It's time for the NCAA and other educational sport governance organizations to get serious about gender equity. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 85(2), 6-7.

Mumford, Vincent E. (2006). Promoting Equity and Access in 2-Year College Intercollegiate Athletic Programs, Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30:213-222.

National Collegiate Athletic, A. (2008). Gender Equity in Intercollegiate Athletics: A Practical Guide for Colleges and Universities--2008. National Collegiate Athletic Association.

Pickett, M. W., Dawkins, M. P., & Braddock, J. H. (2012). Race and Gender Equity in Sports: Have White and African American Females Benefited Equally From Title IX? American Behavioral Scientist, 56(11), 1581-1603

Rhode, D.; & Christopher, J. (March 2008). Gender Equity in College Athletics: Women Coaches as a Case Study, Stanford Journal of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, IV:1, pp. 1-50.

Shulman, J., & Bowen, W. (2001). The game of life: College sports and educational values. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Staurowsky, E. J. (009). Gender Equity in two-year College Athletic Departments: Part II". New Directions For Community Colleges, 2 (147), 63-73.

John W. Frazier

Anderson University

W. Royce Caines

Southern Wesleyan University

John W. Frazier is Professor in the College of Business at Anderson University, South Carolina. Dr. Frazier teaches courses in Management, Organizational Behavior, and Quality Management at Anderson University. He also possesses twelve years of experience in the automotive industry working in various different capacities including engineering, purchasing, and management.

W. Royce Caines is Professor of Business in the School of Business at Southern Wesleyan University. Dr. Caines teaches courses in Quantitative Analysis, Micro and Macro Economics, and Statistics at Southern Wesleyan University. A native of Loris, S.C., Dr. Royce Caines has enjoyed teaching in high school, community college, private college and public college settings. His areas of interest include Quantitative Analysis, Economic Development, Natural Resource Economics.

Table 1

Statistical Tests for 2003

                               Student      Operating   Basketball
                             Athletic Aid   Expenses    Operations

Mean (Men)                     $ 396,672     590,191      202,179
Mean (Women)                   $ 362,261     532,169      171,410
Standard Deviation (Men)       $ 167,384     322,368      110,197
Standard Deviation (Women)     $ 201,887     285,369       96,652
Hypothesized Difference                0           0            0
p-value                          0.26912        .527        .8496

Table 2

Statistical Tests for 2013

                               Student      Operating   Basketball
                             Athletic Aid   Expenses    Operations

Mean (Men)                     $ 760,701    1,386,793     406,425
Mean (Women)                   $ 888,746    1,564,963     370,246
Standard Deviation (Men)       $ 322,673      503,472     104,673
Standard Deviation (Women)     $ 349,943      547,679      96,731
Hypothesized Difference                0            0           0
p-value                           0.2819         .338       .3099