Educational reform: gender perceptions of innovative initiatives in selected public schools in Jamaica.
Morrison, James L. ; Oladunjoye, G. Titi ; Onyefulu, Cynthia 等
INTRODUCTION
In order to advance the literacy of its youth, Jamaican educational
administrators have been directed by the Ministry of Education to create
innovative approaches to instructional methodology that result in
advancing the quality of services provided to students in the classroom
(Task Force on Educational Reform, 2004). In order to develop an
educated workforce, the public officials in Jamaica are relying upon the
ingenuity of its educators to develop academic programs that enhance
student critical thinking skills along with basic life skills that
enhance their graduates' ability to read, write, and compute.
Creating an educational climate for generating change is the challenge
that confronts Jamaican leaders in an educational system that is
currently under stress. Accordingly, Mauzy and Harriman (2003) state
that the ideal creative climate nurtures intrinsic motivation, assures
the safety necessary for curiosity, and holds high expectation for
creativity. They infer that gaining confidence in one's ability to
reach out and propose alternatives that challenge existing assumptions
is fundamental to sustaining creativity as a work ethic. In other words,
having positive personal perceptions regarding individual ability to
initiate creative alternatives are crucial for bringing about change in
organizations.
In the educational community in Jamaica, major changes have been
proposed in order to resolve issues related to excessive dropout rates
and to low reading, math, and science scores. The Ministry of Education
in Jamaica is now willing to embrace revolutionary change by promoting a
paradigm shift from preserving past traditions to generating innovative
and collaborative strategies for restructuring all levels of education
(Task Force on Educational Reform, 2004). In this regard, Amabile (1996)
perceives collaboration as a significant contributing factor for
generating the creative behavior necessary for driving innovation. She
defines creativity as the process of breaking down prior assumptions for
the purpose of connecting new ideas, approaches, and strategies that
challenge well-established traditions. Moreover, innovation is defined
as taking new ideas and turning them into reality.
However, creativity depends upon having a supportive climate in
place. In this regard, Mauzy and Harriman (2003) stress that the primary
responsibility of leadership is to design a workplace environment that
supports creativity that leads to innovation. Ekvall and Arvonen (1984)
define organizational climate as the"recurrent patterns of
behavior, attitudes, and feelings that characterize life in an
organization." (p. 403) In addition, along with organizational
climate, they also identify psychological climate as a subset which
conveys the significance of personal perception of the behaviors,
attitudes and feelings that typify everyday life in a particular
setting. The climate for educational change in the Jamaica is the
subject of this research. Specifically, with the central government
providing additional resources to change existing practices, this
research attempts to address the question of how adept do administrators
perceive themselves for generating innovative change in their schools?
An assumption made in this research is that the perceptions of
Jamaican educational administrators as to how change initiatives emerge
and who are effective leaders in this regard affect the degree of change
that is likely to actually occur. However, possibly hindering a
commitment for change is the reality that gender stereotyping has been
particularly visible in the work culture of educational administrators
in Jamaica. Ironically, although females actually dominate in terms of
numbers of educational administrators and classroom teachers in Jamaica,
their input into major decision-making in the past has been somewhat
overlooked (Bailey & Ricketts, 2003). Now with a renewed interest in
creating a more equitable school environment for students, do those
serving as educational leaders in Jamaican public schools perceive both
genders as equally adept (as well as accepted) in generating new ideas
for proposing change?
BACKGROUND FOR THIS STUDY
According to Jim Collins (2002), the ultimate tool for achieving
goals is the manner in which humans organize and support one another. To
Collins, it is through continual innovation that administrators in
organizations energize the working environment to combat apathy and
despair among their followers.
Strategy for Change in Place
The leadership to advance quality of education in schools in
Jamaica is generally provided by the Jamaican Ministry of Education. The
first call for educational reform was in 1964 when a UNESCO team was
invited to evaluate the schools in Jamaica and to design a strategy for
initiating change (Miller & Murray, 1977). The team consisted of
several representatives from the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA), the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD).and the Jamaican Ministry of Education.
Since then, several assessments and reports on education in Jamaica
have resulted in the central government undertaking major steps to
improve public school instructional programs. For example, based on the
UNESCO Report of 1983, the following innovative initiatives were
generated:
* The Program for the Advancement of Early Childhood Education
(PACE)7272
* The Government of Jamaica (GOJ) Primary Textbook Program (PTP)
* The GOJ/UK-ODA Secondary Schools Textbook Project
* The School Feeding Program (SEP)
* The GOJ/IBRD Reform of Secondary Education (ROSE) program (Task
Force on Educational Reform, 2004, pp. 44-45).
Twenty years after the 1983 UNESCO Report, serious issues remain in
the Jamaican education system, such as high drop out rates and students
underachieving in large numbers. By 2004, the Jamaica public again
demanded a new direction for education (Task Force on Educational
Reform, 2004). One of the key recommendations of the 2004 Task Force was
to decentralize management to give local schools more autonomy to
formulate new strategies for implementing educational reforms. (Task
Force on Educational Reform, 2004). However, the outcomes from the
recommendations in 2004 have been somewhat inconsistent, although
promising (Ministry of Education, 2009). In this 2009 report, the
Ministry of Education identified the following issues that remain to be
resolved:
* The under-utilized capacity of educational administrators to
transform education
* A number of organizational structural obstacles to overcome
* The adoption of innovative strategies to advance educational
reform
* Finding additional financial resources to support new innovative
initiatives
A primary concern that remains today in Jamaica is having
confidence in the capacity of the existing principals to actually
initiate successful change. There are suspicions that a significant
number of school principals in Jamaica may have little inclination to
significantly change their schools. Ironically, in spite of the
reservations held about the capability of the principals to engage in
innovative leadership, several added responsibilities have been placed
on them over the past five years, such as monitoring the outcomes of the
Reform of Secondary Education Curriculum (ROSE) project (Task force on
Educational Reform, 2009).
Societal Norms and Creativity
Cameron (1996) argues that when individuals perceive themselves as
being adept in moving ahead with an idea for the purpose of creating
something new and different, it is an accompanying personal passion that
becomes the ultimate decider as to whether a proposal will result in
success or failure. However, in Jamaica, societal norms have impacted
somewhat negatively especially for females in terms of being able to
demonstrate their capability and passion to propose change. (Bailey
& Brown, 1999), The opportunities for females in Jamaica to display
their passion for change by participating as a major 'creative
player' have been relatively few in comparison to their male
counterparts. In support of this reality, Bem (1993) states that more
recent research into gender differences regarding creativity have
focused on cultural influence rather than relying upon a biological
explanation. Societal traditions are likely to have more effect upon
gender perceptions of individual ability to be creative rather than the
possession of a special 'creative gene." Research conducted by
Roe (1975) substantiates that gender differences as to creative
productivity is likely to be an outcome of experiences reinforced at
work rather than individual capability itself.
Goldsmith (2002) argues that people who believe they can succeed
often see themselves as change agents. They largely perform based upon
their perceptions of personal adeptness rather than luck, random change,
or other external factors. In other words, "successful people
believe they have the internal capacity to make desirable things
happen." (Goldsmith, 2002, p. 43) Handy (2002) correspondingly
suggests that leadership for creative change is the result of making
connections with others who relate past experiences to future visions.
Therefore, leaders bring the creativity of others together for
generating the necessary commitment and unity required to advance novel
ideas (Handy, 2002). He goes on and suggests that "creative persons
require the assurance of fair treatment" (p. 343) in order to
engage in high risk behavior associated with change. Their success
occurs from discovering and connecting, rather than control and
coerciveness. Christensen (2002) writes that implementing acceptable
change depends upon societal norms that promote open social human
interaction, communication, coordination, and above all equal treatment.
Pollard (2002) also states that being creative is uniquely human
and often individualistic, yet requires the organized effort of others
to be effective. Dupree (2002) believes that creative individuals
instinctively insert themselves into change opportunities. By connecting
their knowledge to their curiosity enables creative ideas to emerge. In
this regard, Bailey and Ricketts (2003) suggest that social norms (and
corresponding expectations) generally impact upon the ability of
individuals to move a creative idea to reality. As Wheatley (2002)
states, the two greatest resources of an organization are the creativity
and commitment of its leaders to change. In this regard, Drucker (2002)
also states that societal expectations regarding the need to change are
instrumental in generating innovative initiatives in the workplace and
are reflected in the organizational climate as leaders collaborate to
advance the interests of their stakeholders.
Gender Issues in Jamaica
Among those in educational leadership positions in Jamaica, there
is approximately a l.5 to 1 female to male ratio. (Bailey &
Ricketts, 2003). However, in spite of this ratio, Bailey and Ricketts
state that males have an administrative advantage in terms of exhibiting
influence on educational outcomes in Jamaica. They report that many of
the gender inequities that typify the education process in Jamaica
result from the assumption that men and women are expected to perform
different functions in society. Accordingly, they suggest that there are
structural barriers in place that prevent females from enjoying similar
rights in the workplace as their male counterparts. For example, in a
UNESCO Report on Education in the Caribbean, when compared to males,
females in Jamaica have less access to opportunities to advance their
careers and thus have limited political and economic power. Bailey and
Ricketts (2003) further state that schools themselves play a pivotal
role in reinforcing gender inequality not only in the classroom but for
Jamaican teachers and administrators as well.
Moreover, in the general workplace overall, the under
representation of women in occupations with strategic decision-making
capacity is labeled as "the glass escalator." (Bailey &
Ricketts, 2003). In spite of the fact that females may be highly
educated, they are predominately positioned in service occupations and
thus earn substantially less than their male counterparts (Bailey &
Ricketts, 2003). Correspondingly, as indicated earlier, in the
educational system, males are more highly represented in senior
leadership positions than females (Bailey et. al., 1990). In this
regard, Rickettes & Benfield (2000) point out that such female
status stratification has resulted in a disparity in roles played while
at work. Being creative and generating innovative outcomes are two areas
where females traditionally have played a limited role in the past.
Other Studies of Jamaican Educational Leadership
There have been several intriguing studies of Jamaican educational
leadership since 1975. For example, James (1975) looked at the
preparation of secondary school principals; Davidson (1979) examined
classroom teachers' perceptions of leadership behaviors of
principals; White (1982) investigated the role expectations of
principals in the secondary schools; Richards (1988) focused on
conflicts between the School Board and principals; O'Connor (1992)
examined the relationships between the principals leadership styles and
teachers' morale; Jackson (1999) analyzed the application of the
Code of Regulations by teachers and principals; Malcolm (2003)
investigated the teachers' perceptions of principals leadership
roles; Newman (2005 focused on examining school leadership and social
justice; and Johnson and Ezenne (2008) investigated the roles of
principals in leading instructional change. Therefore, upon review of
the literature, research on analyzing innovation policies, practices,
and intervention has been some what sparse. Specifically, very little
empirical research has been conducted on analyzing gender impacts upon
innovative initiatives undertaken by educational leaders in public
schools in Jamaica. Based on this gap in the existing literature, we saw
a need for this study.
This research examines the extent to which male and female
principals, vice-principals, and senior teachers in Jamaica perceive
themselves in terms of their adeptness to take on innovation an integral
part of their job responsibilities. Educational administrators and
senior teachers in Jamaica are targeted in this research since they have
significant responsibilities as part of their job descriptions to lead
innovative educational efforts that are expected in view of the goals
and corresponding change in educational practices developed by the
Jamaican Educational Ministry.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESIS TESTED
The question that begs an answer reflects upon the issue of
capacity building. The current challenge in Jamaica is to ensure an
equitable climate in the workplace that enhances leadership capacity to
innovate and change approaches to learning. In this regard, do both male
and female school administrators within the educational system of
Jamaica perceive themselves as being equally adept for advancing
educational reform in Jamaica. The null hypotheses tested was that there
is no significant difference in the perceptions among male and female
principals, vice-principals and senior teachers in Jamaica on their
adeptness to initiate and carry out innovation in their schools.
METHODOLOGY
There are 1,303 public schools and 110 independent schools in
Jamaica. Of the 1,303 public schools, 793 are primary and junior high
schools while 510 are classified as technical or high schools (Ministry
of Education, 2007). These schools comprise six regions across the
island of Jamaica. The study focused on principals, vice-principals and
senior teachers in public schools in Region One.
Study Sample
The participants in the study were selected through the use of
convenience sampling methodology. This is because administrators in
Region One were located in very close proximity to the researchers and
thus afforded an easier access to them. Region One comprises of
Kingston, St. Andrew and Western St. Thomas. However, schools in Western
St. Thomas were not used in this study due to an inability to gain
permission to access administrators. (See Table 1 for the distribution
of schools used in the study.)
The Jamaican Directory of Public Educational Institutions 2007-2008
was used for selecting the principals, etc., to become part of the
sample for the study. (N=167). Table 2 below identifies the number of
participants who were selected for the study. In this regard, a total of
167 questionnaires were distributed to educational leaders in 64 schools
in Region One; and 77 were returned, resulting in 46% response rate.
Data Validity and Reliability
Data reflecting innovative sources, targets, and adeptness by
gender were gathered from respondents through a written questionnaire.
(See a copy of the questionnaire in the Appendix.) One segment of the
survey focused on identifying educational innovative targets and sources
of innovative ideas while a second contained items on perceived gender
adeptness for leading innovative efforts within public schools.
Two Jamaican senior teachers, two vice-principals and one principal
in the public schools who were not used in the main study were asked to
review the items in the questionnaire. Based on this review, some items
were deleted and others revised. (See Appendix for Survey Instrument
Utilized in Study.) For the purpose of this research, the questionnaire
was deemed as having face validity (Carmine & Zeller, 1980). In
addition, Cronbach's Alpha measure was used to evaluate the
reliability of the 77 responses to the questionnaire. Reliability is
defined as the ability of the measurement to be consistent and yield
similar results under similar subjects and conditions (Carmine &
Zeller, 1980). For this study, the internal consistency was 0.879, which
is more than the 0.70 that is deemed desirable.
Statistical Analysis
Due to the use of a convenience sample, a non-parametric
statistical measure, the Pearson Chi-Square, was utilized to determine
if there is any significant difference in the perceptions of male and
female principals, vice-principals and senior teachers on their
innovative adeptness. A correlation coefficient was also computed for
comparing the ranking of priorities of innovation targets and sources of
ideas between male and female educational administrators. For this
study, a school administrator is identified as individual with the title
of principal or vice-principal or senior teacher who is currently acting
in that administrative capacity.
FINDINGS
A total of 31 males and 46 females responding to the written
questionnaire (n=77). Of he 31 male respondents, 14 were principals and
17 vice-principals and senior teachers. There were 20 female principals
and 26 vice- principals and senior teachers (See Table 3 below).
Ranking of Sources for Innovation Ideas
The findings indicate that both Jamaican male and female school
administrators generally rank teachers and school administrators as the
two primary sources for innovative ideas. Using a 6-point rating scale
with 1 indicating most significant source for ideas and 6, the least
significant source, male (mean = 1.51) and female (mean =2.26) school
administrators identified school administrators as one of their two top
sources of ideas. (See Table 4 below) In addition, male (mean = 2.16)
and female (mean = 2.11) administrators ranked classroom teachers as
their other top source for innovation ideas. It is noteworthy that the
business community, political forces, and special ad hoc groups were not
perceived as significant sources for innovative ideas in schools in
Jamaica. The mean scores for these three groups ranged from 3.54 to
6.51. In terms of overall correlation between the rankings of 5 sources
of possible ideas, the coefficient correlation of .96 indicates that
both groups (males and females) in the sample perceive the ranking of
their sources similarly.
Ranking of Educational Targets for Innovation
Both male and female school administrators in Jamaica similarly
ranked instruction, student assessment, and curriculum as their top
three innovative targets(See Table 5 below). It is noteworthy that
innovation in regards to assessing teacher performance, instructional
technology, and addressing central educational ministry mandates were
ranked at the bottom of the list with mean scores of both male and
female administrators generally over 3.70. In addition, the ranking of
the six targets for innovation identified by both male and female
administrators was closely aligned as verified by computing a
correlation coefficient of 0.97 (See Table 5).
Analysis of Adeptness at Innovation by Gender
Using a rating scale of 1 indicating exceptionally strong male
adeptness and 5, a exceptionally strong female adeptness, mean scores of
male school administrators were generally below 3.00. This finding
indicates that Jamaican male school administrators perceived themselves
as being more adept in the skills needed to lead innovative efforts in
their school districts (See Table 6 below). An overall mean score of
male school administrators (mean =2.89) and female school administrators
(mean = 3.58) support the finding that male and female have different
perceptions for those leading innovation in Jamaican schools.
Using version SPSS-18 statistical software package licensed from
IBM, the nonparametric Pearson Chi Square was utilized to analyze the
responses of those in the sample population to 10 leadership skills
included on the survey instrument. A 2 x 3 table was compiled by
converting responses originally recorded on a 5-point rating scale for
each of these 10 skills to a 3-point rating scale. Those responses
indicating 1 or 2 ratings (males more adept) and 4 or 5 (female were
adept) were condensed into one rating factor for each category.
Therefore ratings were categorized as Male More Adept, Neither More
Adept, and Female More Adept. Reponses then were classified according to
Gender. The expected frequencies in Table 6 were computed by the Chi
Square software package. The results of the Pearson Chi Square revealed
that there were statistically significant differences in perceptions
female and male school administrators for six leadership skills: those
being, being alert for innovation opportunities, synthesizing innovative
ideas, assessing organizational capacity, managing their time, thinking
creatively, and having a passion for change.
Both male and female school administrators in Jamaica similarly
ranked instruction, student assessment, and curriculum as their top
three innovative targets(See Table 5 below). It is noteworthy that
innovation in regards to assessing teacher performance, instructional
technology, and addressing central educational ministry mandates were
ranked at the bottom of the list with mean scores of both male and
female administrators generally over 3.70. In addition, the ranking of
the six targets for innovation identified by both male and female
administrators was closely aligned as verified by computing a
correlation coefficient of 0.97 (See Table 5).
Analysis of Adeptness at Innovation by Gender
Using a rating scale of 1 indicating exceptionally strong male
adeptness and 5, a exceptionally strong female adeptness, mean scores of
male school administrators were generally below 3.00. This finding
indicates that Jamaican male school administrators perceived themselves
as being more adept in the skills needed to lead innovative efforts in
their school districts (See Table 6 below). An overall mean score of
male school administrators (mean = 2.89) and female school
administrators (mean = 3.58) support the finding that male and female
have different perceptions for those leading innovation in Jamaican
schools.
Using version SPSS-18 statistical software package licensed from
IBM, the nonparametric Pearson Chi Square was utilized to analyze the
responses of those in the sample population to 10 leadership skills
included on the survey instrument. A 2 x 3 table was compiled by
converting responses originally recorded on a 5-point rating scale for
each of these 10 skills to a 3-point rating scale. Those responses
indicating 1 or 2 ratings (males more adept) and 4 or 5 (female were
adept) were condensed into one rating factor for each category.
Therefore ratings were categorized as Male More Adept, Neither More
Adept, and Female More Adept. Reponses then were classified according to
Gender. The expected frequencies in Table 6 were computed by the Chi
Square software package. The results of the Pearson Chi Square revealed
that there were statistically significant differences in perceptions
female and male school administrators for six leadership skills: those
being, being alert for innovation opportunities, synthesizing innovative
ideas, assessing organizational capacity, managing their time, thinking
creatively, and having a passion for change.
CONCLUSIONS
It may be concluded that female and male educational administrators
in Jamaica perceive their sources for innovative ideas and corresponding
targets for innovation similarly. Most intriguingly, both genders
perceive an in-house perspective, relying on teachers and other
administrators as their top two sources for ideas. Of particular
interest is that sources outside of the educational community itself are
perceived as being less of importance for generating educational change.
In particular, two notable groups not identified as important sources
for innovative initiatives are parents and those in the business
community. Similarly, in regards to educational targets for innovation,
both male and female school administrators perceive instruction,
curricula, and assessment as priorities. Interestingly, however,
attempting to be innovative at assessing teacher performance and meeting
educational ministry mandates appear to be low priorities as innovation
targets.
Ironically, however, it may also be concluded that Jamaican male
and female principals, vice-principals and senior teachers perceive
themselves differently in terms as to whom is more adept for leading
innovation in schools by leveraging resources into productive outputs.
Males generally perceive themselves as more adept at innovation while
females have an opposing viewpoint. The differences in perceptions were
significant for six innovative skills. Therefore, the null hypothesis
for this research that there is no significant difference in the
perceptions among male and female principals, vice-principals and senior
teachers in Jamaica on their adeptness to initiate and carry out
innovation in their schools was rejected.
It thus appears that possibly due to a past social and cultural
norm of ignoring the consequences of gender occupational stereotyping,
there may continue to be a subtle but also intrusive disparity regarding
how gender is perceived in terms of being adept for generating
innovation in the public schools in Jamaica. It is interesting to note
that while male administrators perceive themselves as being more adept
to initiating and leading change, females seem themselves likewise. This
discrepancy could reflect the effects of academic programs in the public
schools that segregate academics by gender. Such a practice may have
overtones for establishing an organizational climate that perpetuates a
subtle inequity by gender in terms of expectations at the administrative
level.
IMPLICATIONS FOR ADDITIONAL RESEARCH
Although not the focus of this research, it would be intriguing to
take this study to the next level by determining if there was a need for
additional capacity building for generative innovative initiatives among
principals, vice-principals, and senior teachers in the public schools
in Jamaica. If capacity building is an issue in these schools, then
analyzing gender impacts upon such a need could assist principals,
vice-principals, and senior teachers in determining effective ways for
advancing a more equal respect of all, thus leveling the playing field
in regards to leading innovative efforts in their schools. Such research
could also validate the findings of this study on innovative adeptness
by gender.
LIMITATIONS
This research uses a convenience sample consisting of
administrators and senior teachers employed in three counties in
Jamaica. Since permission was not obtained in the other two counties,
the sample was primarily focused on three of the counties associated
with city and larger schools. In addition, the data collected relied on
the perceptions of individuals. The assumption adopted was that
respondents understood the English language sufficiently enough in order
to interpret the items on the questionnaire according to their intent.
No face-to-face interviews were conducted to assure terms in the data
collection survey were interpreted correctly.
Appendix--Survey Instrument
Innovational Leadership Questionnaire
Innovation for this study is about reinventing processes to foster,
nurture, and build a workplace where individuals have the capacity to
leverage resources to initiate change to advance new educational
outcomes. Please complete the entire survey instrument reflecting your
honest appraisal of your personal initiatives and those of other
educators in this regard.
Innovation Sources and Targets
Directions: Please rank from (1) most important to (5) least
important (5) the following educational areas (targets) in terms of
priority for implementing change by means of an innovative
approach. (Scale: 1 = Most Important to 5 Least Important)
Ranking Educational Target
-- Curriculum/Program Design
-- Classroom Instructional Methodology
-- Assessment of Student Learning
-- Meeting Government Mandates
-- Assessment of Classroom Teacher Performance
-- Other Important Area --
Directions: Please rank from (1) Most Important to (6) Least
important the following sources for innovative ideas (Scale: 1 =
Most Important to 6 Least Important)
Ranking Source for Innovative Ideas
-- Business Community
-- Parents/Parent-Teacher Association
-- Classroom Teachers
-- Educational Administrators
-- Political Community
-- Special Ad Hoc Groups/Committees
Other Important Source
Directions: Please place one check per item in the appropriate
column to reflect your perceptions that answers specifically the
following question:
Generally, which gender of principals, vice-principals, and/or
senior teachers in your organization do you feel is more adept in
utilizing each of the following skills for generating innovative change?
Column 1 = Male Greatly More Adept Column 2 = Male Slightly More
Adept Column 3 = Neither Gender More Adept (Both Equally Adept) - No
Difference Column 4 = Female Slightly More Adept Column 5 = Female
Greatly More Adept
(Male) Neither (Female)
Greatly Slightly Slightly Greatly
More More More More
Adept Adept Adept Adept
Innovation Skills (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1. Being Alert for New
Opportunities
2. Synthesizing Innovative
Ideas.
3. Collaborating Across Org.
Functions
4. Exhibiting a Passion for
Innovation
5. Coaching Others to be
Innovative
6. Fostering Trust Among
Colleagues
7. Asking the Right Questions
8. Assessing Org. Capacity for
Innovation
9. Managing their time to
Advance Innovation
10. Thinking Creatively
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About the Authors:
James Morrison holds a doctorate in education from Temple
University. Dr. Morrison is a professor of leadership in the College of
Arts and Sciences at the University of Delaware in Newark, DE. He is the
author of over 100 papers, 60 articles, and 2 textbooks. His research
interests focus on the assessment of diversity, ethics, and innovative
initiatives on the part of leaders in business, non-profit, and public
organizations.
Ganiyu T. OIadunjoye is a professor of Educational Leadership at
Albany State University, Albany, Georgia. He served as a Fulbright
Scholar at the University of Technology, Jamaica, during the 2002/2003
academic year. He belongs to many professional organization and has
received numerous awards during his career in education. He also has
numerous articles published in a many refereed professional journals.
Cynthia Onyefulu is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education
and Liberal Studies at the University of Technology, Jamaica. She has
won several awards for her research studies and publications. These
include the University of Technology President's Research
Initiative Award in 2006 and the Publication and Innovation Incentive
for Excellence Scheme (PIIE). She teachers undergraduate and graduate
courses in assessment in education, research methods, program evaluation
and classroom and behavior management.
Dale Rose is currently working on his Ph.D. in Education at
Northcentral University, Prescott, Arizona. He earned his Masters of
Education degree in 2006 in Interrelated Special Education from Albany
State University. He is presently the Department Chair for the
Exceptional Students Program at the Albany High Honors, Law, and
Multimedia Magnet School in Albany, Georgia.
James L. Morrison
University of Delaware
G. Titi Oladunjoye
Albany State University
Cynthia Onyefulu
Gareth Phillips
University of Technology, Jamaica
Dale Rose
North Central University
Table 1
Study Sample of Educational Institutions in Kinston and St. Andrew
Total Number Number in
Institutions in Population Study Sample
Primary 53 22
Primary & Junior High 19 8
Secondary & Technical 43 334
Total 115 64
Table 2
Public Educational Administrators in Kinston and St. Andrew
Participants Number in Actual Number
Sample Participating
Principals 64 45
Vice- Principals & Senior Teachers 103 32
Total 167 77
Table 3
Demographics by Gender, Title, and Number of Years Service (n = 77)
Title Years of Service Male Female Total
Principal 0-2 2 5 7
3-5 2 2 4
6-10 5 5 10
11 & Above 5 8 13
Vice-Principals/Sr. 0-2 8 11 19
Teachers 3-5 3 6 9
6-10 3 3 6
11 & Above 3 6 9
31 46 77
Grand Total
Table 4
Ranking of Sources for Innovative Initiatives (N = 77)
Sources Male (n - 31) Female (n - 46)
Mean Ranking Mean Ranking
Administrators 1.51 1 2.26 2
Teachers 2.16 2 2.11 1
Ministry 3.19 3 2.87 3
Parents 4.20 4 3.54 4
Business Community 4.74 5 4.85 5
Ad Hoc Group 5.51 6 5.82 6
Political Community 6.51 7 6.41 7
** Correlation Coefficient = .96805
Note: Rating Scale: Mean Rating 1 = Most Signif. Source; and 6, Least
Signif. Source
Table 5
Ranking of Educational Targets for Innovation (n= 77)
Innovative Target Male (n=31) Female (n=46)
Mean Rank Mean Rank
Student Assessment 2.65 1 3.22 3
Instruction 2.81 2 2.96 2
Curriculum/Program 2.84 3 2.13 1
Teacher Performance 3.90 4 3.71 4
Instructional Technology 4.26 5 3.81 5
Ed. Ministry Mandate 4.94 6 5.28 6
Note: Rating Scale: 1 = primary target; 6 = least target
Correlation Coefficient = .97423
Table 6
Adeptness in Leading Innovative Change by Gender (N=77) *
Leadership Skills Gender Means Frequencies
MMA N
O E O E
Alert for Innovation M 2.71 12(6.0) 13(12.1)
Opport.
Synthesizing Innovat. F 3.78 3(9.0) 17(17.9)
Ideas M 2.81 11(5.6) 15(16.5)
Collaborating F 3.50 3(8.4) 26(24.5)
M 3.09 6(4.4) 15(13.3)
Coaching Others F 3.51 5(6.6) 18(19.7)
M 3.10 10(6.8) 10(10.5)
Fostering Trust F 3.56 7(10.2) 16(15.5)
M 2.58 13(9.3) 12(12.1)
Asking Right Questions F 3.35 10(13.7) 18(17.8)
M 2.90 8(6.4) 15(13.7)
Assess. Org. Capacity F 3.34 8(9.6) 19(20.3)
M 2.92 8(4.4) 16(14.9)
Managing Time F 3.54 3(6.6) 21(22.1)
M 2.81 10(5.2) 12(10.9)
Thinking Creatively F 3.76 3(7.8) 15(16.1)
M 2.97 8(3.2) 16(15.7)
Having Passion to F 3.74 0(4.8) 23(23.3)
Innovate M 3.01 9(4.8) 12(11.3)
Grand Mean F 3.80
M 2.89
F 3.58
Leadership Skills
MFA *** Chi-
O E Square ** P
Alert for Innovation 6(12.9) 16.12 .000 **
Opport.
Synthesizing Innovat. 26(19.1)
Ideas 5(8.9) 11.58 .003 **
Collaborating 17(13.1)
10(13.3) 2.66 .264
Coaching Others 23(19.7)
11(13.7) 3.35 .187
Fostering Trust 23(20.3)
6(9.7) 4.85 .088
Asking Right Questions 18(14.3)
8(10.9) 2.11 .348
Assess. Org. Capacity 19(16.1)
7(11.7) 8.09 .017 **
Managing Time 22(17.3)
9(14.9) 11.36 .003 **
Thinking Creatively 28(22.1)
7(12.1) 15.45 .000 **
Having Passion to 23(17.9)
Innovate 10(14.9) 8.79 .012 **
Grand Mean
Note: Reliability quotient: Cronbach's Alpha Score 0.879.
* Gender: Male= 31;Female=46
** Pearson Chi Square using a 2 x 3 table (2 degrees of freedom);
Significant at .05 level
- O=observations; E= expected frequency
*** MMA--Male More Adept; N-Neither; FMA--Female More Adept
