Mediated lesson study, collaborative learning, and cultural competence among early childhood educators.
West-Olatunji, Cirecie ; Behar-Horenstein, Linda ; Rant, Jeffrey 等
Abstract. Early childhood educators have competing demands that
minimize their ability to utilize evidence-based practices and respond
to the challenges posed by culturally diverse classrooms. Using a case
study method, we studied four female early childhood teachers at a
university-affiliated preschool who developed mini-research projects
using a mediated form of lesson study. Findings showed that the
collegial nature of a mediated form of lesson study resulted in
reflective practices and increased professional collaboration among the
teachers. However, there was no resultant change in the ways that the
teachers used their cultural awareness in their teaching. Results have
implications for teacher educators, early childhood education teachers,
and preschool directors with regard to teacher efficacy and practitioner
inquiry.
**********
Hernandez (2004) predicts that at some time between 2020 and 2030,
50% of children in the United States will be from culturally diverse
backgrounds. As U.S. society becomes more diverse, early childhood
educators will be working with students from various ethnic, economic,
cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers must develop the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes necessary to be effective in multicultural
settings (Espinosa, 2005). In order to help all students, teachers must
be able to reflect on diversity in numerous ways by responding to
students' learning styles, cultural differences, developmental
needs, and the personality differences among children, parents,
community members, and other school personnel (Landerholm, Gehrie, &
Hao, 2004). Such cultural knowledge and skills can aid teachers in
building collaborative relationships with culturally, linguistically,
and economically diverse parents (Barbour, Barbour, & Scully, 2005;
West-Olatunji & Behar-Horenstein, 2005).
Teacher education programs can provide early childhood educators
with a firm understanding of multiculturalism. However, it may be
difficult to teach specific skills that will be effective with all the
diverse groups that may constitute classroom communities. Therefore,
teacher education programs can teach students to be flexible in their
thinking and teaching. One skill that can help teachers adapt and learn
to be successful with students of diverse ethnicities, socioeconomic
classes, or cultures is reflective thinking. Reflection is the ability
to assess situations and make thoughtful, rational decisions (Landerholm
et al., 2004). Fostering reflective practitioners has become a major
goal of many teacher education programs (Hobson, 2001). One strategy to
foster such reflectivity and increased cultural competency has been the
use of master teachers as mentors (Doyle, 1985; King, Henington, &
Ladson-Billings, 2003). Additionally, lesson study has been reported to
be another tool that promotes reflective thinking (Lewis, Perry, &
Murata, 2006).
Moreover, early childhood teachers must contend with competing
demands that challenge their ability to provide quality instruction.
These demands minimize their ability to utilize evidence-based practices
and colleague collaboration to solve classroom problems. Little time is
allotted to plan, dialogue, and collaborate with colleagues, or reflect
upon evidence-based practices that may help ameliorate classroom issues.
Boyer (2000) asks, "When do teachers and the school community have
the time to organize and ensure that academic standards and personal
excellence of students are being promoted?" (p. 52). Further, the
conflict between available time and the demands on teachers draws a
distinction between the academic instruction and social services they
provide (Meek, 2003). Early childhood teachers function as nurturers as
much as they do instructors. The nature of early childhood education and
the manner in which teachers are utilized often create a significant
barrier to the delivery of critical knowledge to students. Early
childhood education can provide the building blocks for students to
realize success throughout their education and into adulthood (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2005; Kemple, David, & Hysmith, 1997).
However, unsuccessful early childhood experiences can leave children
with unmet needs relative to social competence and self-esteem (Dunn,
1999; Kemple et al., 1997).
Using a narrative framework, the researchers conceptualized how
early childhood teachers might resolve issues through a mediated form of
lesson study. The philosophical roots of narrative inquiry lie in
postmodernism and social constructivism, wherein reality is viewed as
subjective and based on one's perspective that emanates from
engagement in the world (Creswell, 2005, 2006; Semmler & Williams,
2000). As such, multiple realities co-exist because reality is neither
absolute nor objective. O'Hanlon (1994) suggests that cultural
systems also shape people's lives and thus must be considered when
conceptualizing problems and developing solutions within a narrative
context. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the
usefulness of a mediated form of lesson study in promoting collaboration
and cultural competence among early childhood educators.
Review of Literature
Lesson Study
Lesson study is a form of reflective teaching that uses
collaborative dialogue to engage teachers in a collective assessment of
their classroom practices. Many U.S. educators are interested in this
Japanese method of practitioner-driven inquiry because of its inherent
focus on teachers as researchers (Lewis et al., 2006). The term
"lesson study" is derivative of the Japanese word jugyokenkyu,
in which the word jugyo (lesson) is combined with the word kenkyu (study
or research). Lesson study began in the early 1900s and was used by
Japanese educators with children and young adolescents in math and
science classes (Fernandez, 2002). Today, lesson study is widely used
across the continuum from secondary to preschool settings.
The process of lesson study facilitates reflection, collaboration,
and collegiality among teachers as they design and evaluate their
lessons (Lewis & Tsuchida, 1988). At the beginning of a project, the
team of teachers generates a research question and creates a specific
lesson plan for a particular subject that they have chosen to study. The
team observes the lesson as it is taught and then re-evaluates the plan,
making any necessary changes. The cycle is repeated as often as is
needed throughout the period of inquiry. Following the lesson, teachers
develop a report based on their findings and distribute it to the school
community. The focus of the investigation could be on assisting a child
who is overly anxious, developing counting or basic literacy skills, or
targeting a particular grade level or subject area. The number of
teachers on a lesson study team may vary and the scope of their
interaction may be a classroom, a particular school, or it may be
regional or statewide (Fernandez, 2002).
Lesson study is becoming a popular professional development tool in
the United States (Lewis, 2000), particularly in mathematics education
(Fernandez, Cannon, & Chokshi, 2003). Adapting lesson study for use
in the United States presents many challenges, especially in the
development of research skills. Fernandez et al. (2003) found that
teachers typically had difficulty posing sound questions,
conceptualizing a classroom experiment, and articulating what artifacts
might serve as evidence. The approach to lesson study in Japan is
systematic and it promotes the formation of supportive, collaborative
networks within the school. Teachers have flexible schedules that are
conducive to their participation in group meetings. Such an environment
is antithetical to the autonomy and isolation that most U.S. teachers
experience (Gonzales, 2004). More than three decades ago, Lortie (1975)
characterized the climate in U.S. schools as an "impoverished
understanding of one another's abilities and activities" (p.
89). Schools today are no different.
The researchers used a modified form of lesson study that allowed
the participants to engage in reflection and collaboration, processes
inherent in lesson study. However, we did not fully use lesson study due
to limitations at the setting, such as high turnover among instructional
teams, an emergent curriculum, and lack of exposure to teacher
inquiry/teacher collaborative models of teaching. As such, teacher
participants were allowed to develop mediated lesson study projects that
investigated phenomena and informed the curriculum for each of their
developmental instructional teams.
Collaborative Learning
Collaboration is utilized widely in educational settings throughout
the world (Tsaparlis & Gorezi, 2005). Used in many different
classroom settings, collaborative learning can be applied to almost
every subject, ranging from chemistry and statistics (Davis &
Blanchard, 2004) to writing progress reports for special education
students (Webre, 2005). Every level of education, from kindergarten to
higher education, can employ collaborative learning (Slavin, 1990;
Vermette, Harper, & DiMillo, 2004). Extant studies have shown that
collaborative learning is effective with preservice teachers (Seifert,
2005), teachers and students (Webre, 2005), and among parents, special
educators, tutors, and school administrators (Spencer, 2005).
Researchers have shown that when collaborative learning was used,
students improved their problem-solving abilities (Fawcett & Garton,
2005). Collaboration has also been shown to: 1) help groups improve
their problem-solving abilities, 2) aid teacher-student understanding
and rapport building (Davis & Blanchard, 2004; Webre, 2005), 3)
facilitate conflict resolution (Stevahn, Johnson, Johnson, Oberle, &
Wahl, 2000), and 4) enhance student motivation (Shindler, 2004).
Research on collaboration among teachers has focused primarily on ways
to counteract teacher autonomy and insularity (McDonald & Klein,
2003), theorizing and reflection (Rust & Meyers, 2006), collegiality
(Grunberg & Armellini, 2004; Little, 1982), and burnout prevention
(Allen & Miller, 1990).
Collaborative learning is a practice that involves the formation of
a small group of teacher-researchers who come together to solve problems
and accomplish shared goals (Capobianco, Lincoln, Canuel-Browne, &
Trimarchi, 2006). Collaboration brings relationships to the foreground
and helps teachers regain the personal empowerment needed to effectively
address student or classroom problems (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec,
1991; Slavin, 1990).
We hypothesized that a narrative approach would assist the early
childhood educators in viewing classroom issues within the cultural
context of their school and community and would allow them to devise
solutions that consider context. Moreover, because knowledge is socially
constructed, teachers can benefit from the collegial nature of lesson
study in which they are asked to collaborate with one another to discuss
their research questions. The researchers asked the question,
"Using a mediated form of lesson study, how does teacher
reflection/inquiry, within a collegial context, impact the cultural
responsiveness of early childhood practitioners' instructional
practices?"
Method
In this study, we utilized narrative inquiry as a qualitative
method that allowed for poly-vocality and perspectivity among the
teachers as they collectively verbalized their reflections on a weekly
basis (Jungck, 2001). In turn, participating teachers acted on their
synergistic reflections to create reflexivity in their respective
classroom interactions with children. Teachers' positioning and
proximity to their phenomena under investigation were central to the
research process.
The researchers followed the intentions of a case study in order to
go beyond the descriptive questions, such as who, what, when, how much,
and how many, to answer the questions of how and why (Yin, 1993, 1994).
This method provided an ideal research tool to explore the
participants' worldviews. Case study research encourages
researchers to focus on the context and to be receptive to multiple,
interacting influences (Rubaie, 2002). Designed to investigate the rich
complexities of social phenomena and the social environments in which
they are situated, case study is conceptualized as a useful research
strategy (MacPherson, Brooker, & Ainsworth, 2000). Furthermore, use
of this heuristic methodological approach allows the researchers to
deepen the reader's understanding of the participants'
phenomenology in a manner that extends the reader's own experience
(Corcoran, Walker, & Wals, 2004).
Participants
Research participants included a purposeful sample of four white
female teachers at a child care center/lab school. Their teaching
experiences ranged from three to 20 years. In addition, a master teacher
was solicited from contacts with teacher educators at the local
university. After receiving several names of potential master teachers,
the research team reviewed the qualifications of each candidate. They
contacted one individual, based upon her years of experience,
involvement with prior research studies, and availability to participate
in the weekly seminars. The master teacher was a practicing white female
teacher with 15 years of elementary education experience.
Procedures
Access to the setting was facilitated by the first author's
affiliation as an advisory board member and informal consultant for
early childhood mental health issues with the child care center/lab
school. Following approval from the university's institutional
review board (UFIRB#2005-U-606), participants were asked to complete an
informed consent form, the application form, and a cultural narrative
essay. On the application form, participants were asked to provide
demographic information, an explanation of their previous experience
with research, a brief essay to indicate their interest in participating
in the study, and a potential classroom phenomenon that they would like
to investigate. All of the participants, teacher-collaborators, and the
authors wrote and shared their cultural narrative essays. This process
helped to illuminate how personal historiography shaped instructional
strategies and cultural awareness (Henry, 2006).
Data consisted of the application form, cultural biographies,
audiotaped weekly reflection sessions, completed lesson study forms (see
Table 1), multimedia portfolios that showcased the research findings,
and videotaped post-intervention interviews. A post-intervention
interview was administered to assess how a mediated form of lesson study
process might have influenced teachers' awareness of how cultural
responsiveness can promote effective teaching. Data were analyzed using
NVIVO (v. 2.0), a qualitative analysis software tool.
The study participants were oriented to the concepts of culturally
appropriate pedagogy, practitioner-guided research, a mediated form of
lesson study, and collaborative learning during six weekly 50-minute
professional development workshops provided by the research team.
Following the orientation period, teachers were encouraged to concretize
their research questions. Subsequently, teachers engaged in nine weeks
of audiotaped weekly reflection sessions that lasted approximately 50
minutes each and allowed participants to present their completed lesson
study forms. These sessions were held with at least one of the
researchers, a process observer, the master teacher, and the study
participants. The focus of these sessions was to analyze the lesson
plans and identify the gaps between curriculum implementation and the
teachers' research goals. When problems with implementation were
revealed, the group process led the participants to ask, "What are
we not doing?" and "What do we need to do instead?" In
response, group members offered alternative methods that would assist
each teacher in reaching the research goal. As an approach, lesson plan
was useful in analyzing and reviewing teacher practice as they
considered the teachers' objectives and reported outcomes.
Following group feedback, the teacher implemented the revised lesson and
recorded the outcomes.
The researchers facilitated discussions and consultations about
research and, to some degree, pedagogical assistance, whereas the master
teacher provided specific assistance with instructional challenges.
Teacher knowledge and growth were evaluated using performance-based
assessments, including lesson presentations and portfolios. Rubrics were
used to assess lesson presentations and multimedia portfolios (see Table
2). Teachers were observed to assess their ability to demonstrate: 1)
reflective practice within a collegial circle, 2) application of
sociocultural knowledge, and 3) a deeper understanding of culture,
students, and learning. Final presentations of findings were shared
orally during the last reflection session and electronically by using
digital presentations. During videotaped 20-minute post-intervention
interviews, teachers reflected on the overall research experience.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted simultaneously with data collection,
data interpretation, and narrative report writing by thematic
deconstruction and reconceptualization (Creswell, 2006). In order to
strengthen the validity of our findings, two of the researchers coded
the data independently and then met weekly to discuss shared themes and
to reach consensus regarding the others. The final analysis involved
reviewing, coding, and analyzing the data, and then meeting as a
research team to reach consensus regarding the themes found.
In addition to the use of multiple data sources and multiple
researchers in the data analysis process, verification of results was
attained through ongoing member checks regarding the themes found and by
sharing the findings with participating teachers. We used NVIVO (v. 2.0)
to analyze relationships and to further triangulate data analysis. Our
research design aided us in observing relationships and generating
causal explanations. Use of narrative allowed us to trace patterns over
time.
Results
We expected that the study participants would reflect on and
formulate opinions about the use of culturally appropriate pedagogy,
reflective teaching, and collaborative learning and their effect on the
teaching and learning process. Additionally, we anticipated that
teachers would articulate the relevance and application of the master
teacher as part of their overall experience. From our review of the
literature, we hypothesized that four major themes would be present:
reflectivity, professional collaboration, cultural awareness, and
personal growth.
A node search of the data showed that the theme of reflectivity was
most prevalent (n = 57). Most reflecting occurred as a result of the
professional collaboration (n = 40) provided by the collegial circle.
Therefore, it appeared that reflectivity and professional collaboration
were closely linked. The theme of cultural awareness presented 30 times.
Presenting 22 times, empowerment seemed to be related to personal growth
(n = 20). In the following section, we will discuss three salient
themes: reflectivity/professional collaboration, cultural awareness, and
personal growth/empowerment.
Reflectivity and Professional Collaboration
All teachers reported that working as a team was important to them.
That's one thing I liked about this because in our classroom,
we are either a three-member teacher team or a four-member teaching
team. So I think it would be really beneficial if we had that ability to
come together and kind of work toward a common goal. Be able to observe
each other, to teach each other, and ultimately it would make the
classroom a better place for you and the children.
We also found that reflectivity and professional collaboration were
rarely independent of one another once the study began. One goal of
lesson study is to create reflective practitioners, and this was evident
in the findings.
The project has altered my teaching methods in looking at my
program, my lesson plans. And when I'm looking at students to
evaluate and research, I look further. I look more in-depth and look at
how I can get students more involved in the activities.
A significant finding was the degree of professional collaboration
that occurred as a result of a mediated form of lesson study. During our
analysis of the transcripts, we observed that solidarity and
collegiality increased among the team. The teachers became more involved
with one another, and relied less on the research facilitator to lead
the discussions. We observed that it was during these discussions that
the teachers became most reflective and inquisitive about what they were
doing and how it was working.
You get good feedback. If I got stuck on a problem or if I got
stuck with something, I had people to help me through it and help me
come up with ideas and vice-versa. If they got stuck on something,
whether it was good criticism or bad criticism, we had somebody making
us think and pushing us along a little bit more and it was real helpful.
I liked it.
The reflections and subsequent feedback were constructive and
positive. As the teachers became more comfortable with the process of
collegial inquiry, they became more open and trusting, and that led to
more reflection and collaboration.
They were good at making suggestions on how, like teaching one
little aspect, how it might work better or how I might incorporate
language that would make it come across in a clearer fashion to the
kids. So we critiqued each other, but it was always very positive.
Cultural Awareness
In this study, participants viewed themselves as teachers of
culturally diverse students and did not articulate that they saw
themselves as cultural beings in their own right. Although we discussed
the concept of culturally appropriate pedagogy, it was observed that the
teachers' cultural narratives lacked an in-depth exploration of
culture. Although teachers recognized cultural differences, they lacked
an awareness of how an understanding of culture impacts learning. For
example, teachers addressed the issue of culture in their narratives.
The school was 90% minority and I was one of the only white people
in the aftercare program. That was my first experience in a position
where I was the odd man out. It ended up being one of the most positive
experiences that I've been in.
This teacher expressed an awareness of difference, but did not
articulate how these differences might impact classroom dynamics,
teaching strategies, and learning.
Another teacher focused her mediated lesson study on a child who
was fretful and was uncooperative during nap times. This child's
behavior was a daily challenge for this teacher. At the onset of the
experience, this teacher shared her frustration with the child because
nothing she did seemed to be effective in getting the child to lie down
with the other children in her cot during nap period. Toward the middle
of the experience, the teacher began to hypothesize about the
child's behavior and ask questions of the other practicing teachers
about what she could do that might be more effective. At the end of the
experience, the teacher pondered how the familial and cultural norms
might influence the child's expectations about sleep time and the
role of caretakers in that process. She was then able to hypothesize
about the child's family system and eventually decided to engage
the parent in the problem-solving strategies. While a mediated form of
lesson study process assisted the teacher in becoming more reflective
about integrating the child's familial values into instruction,
this teacher did not articulate awareness of these teaching strategies
as cultural competence. As such, while teachers would often consider
culture as a factor, they did not pose research questions in their
lesson studies that centered on cultural awareness. Overall, cultural
awareness played a less prominent role in our findings than we expected.
[TABLE 2 OMITTED]
Personal Growth/Empowerment
The teachers reported feeling empowered by participating in a
mediated form of lesson study experience. The goal of lesson study is to
create reflective practitioners who can collaborate with colleagues to
discover ways to effectively teach their students. This was exemplified
by the following:
It made me communicate more with my team about problems, and it has
enabled me. I think that in the future I can use the lesson [study]
template to work with my team on issues and problems that occur in the
classroom and I think that it will help me more in the future.
This mediated lesson study experience provided teachers with the
skills to view problems in new ways. Asking teachers to develop a
research question allowed them to reflect on questions they had or
problems that they were experiencing in the classroom or during
instruction. This process forced the teachers to conceptualize problems
differently. In addition to mediated lesson study and collaboration,
teachers became more effective and thoughtful about the importance of
planning for instruction (Behar-Horenstein, 1994).
I think the one thing that has changed is my preparation skills.
This allowed me to really look ahead and think more precisely [about]
what I want to do and, as a result, I think I got a more desirable
outcome.
All participants in the study gained an understanding of how a
mediated form of lesson study could be a useful tool for improving their
teaching practices. Teachers reported feeling empowered by their
participation in the study. They stated that the collegial nature of the
project increased collaboration, and the constructive feedback that they
received increased their overall teaching abilities. Counter to our
expectations, teachers did not articulate any acknowledgement of the
master teacher as relevant to their growth and development.
Significance
Lesson study allows teachers to engage in collegial inquiry so that
they can thoroughly and efficiently reflect upon their practices
(Fernandez & Chokshi, 2002; Hiebert & Stigler, 2000). We found
that by engaging teachers in collaborative learning, a support system
evolved whereby they felt safe enough to disclose and share classroom
challenges and receive peer assessment.
Over time, the teachers acquired a researcher-practitioner
identity. Initially, they deferred authority regarding their research
questions to the principal investigators. The nature of the weekly
discussion changed from a more didactic exchange between an individual
teacher and the researchers to discourse among the team. Current
research investigating teacher inquiry focuses on encouraging teachers
to problem solve about challenges in their classrooms. This is of
particular importance in culturally diverse classrooms because of the
poorly aligned expectations, insufficient communication, and minimal
cooperative efforts between children's home cultures and that of
the school (Barbour et al., 2005).
There were no outcomes from using a master teacher to facilitate
discussions and to problem solve about classroom or instructional
challenges. The researchers hypothesized that this may have been due to
several factors. First, the master teacher was not known to the
participants prior to the study and was not a member of the
faculty/staff at the child care center. Second, the master teacher often
arrived 10 minutes after the start of each reflection session due to her
teaching responsibilities and travel time to the center. Third, the
master teacher was unable to participate in the six weeks of orientation
prior to the onset of their research projects. These inhibitors may have
prevented the master teacher from establishing trust and credibility
with the participating teachers. As such, participants may not have used
the master teacher as a resource as expected.
One benefit of the collaborative learning and reflective inquiry
that was greater than we anticipated was teacher empowerment. At the
outset of the study, the teachers focused their discussion on the
demands in their classrooms and mentioned not receiving enough support
or instruction. They even suggested that participation in the study
might have been an imposition. However, over time, they described the
benefits of the time away from their daily work tasks to sit and
reflect, theorize, and pose solutions to their own instructional
challenges as well as those of others.
The results of this study have implications for teacher educators
who seek to improve candidates' understanding of multiple
realities, critical thinking and reflective teaching skills, and use of
collaborative learning approaches. Core teacher-education courses can
promote teachers' abilities to inquire into their own teaching
practices and student learning (Behar-Horenstein, 1994; Valli, van Zee,
Rennert-Ariev, Mikeska, Catlett-Muhammad, & Roy, 2006). This process
can enhance teaching practice as well as student outcomes. Professional
development centered on inquiry will serve as a mechanism to promote
teacher efficacy and individual agency (Snow-Gerono, 2005).
The study is relevant to early childhood educators who seek to
promote teacher empowerment. The findings suggest that early childhood
teachers benefit when provided the opportunity to creatively and
collaboratively design curricula that meet students' needs. Vali et
al. (2006) found that practitioner inquiry empowers teachers to become
leaders.
Results showed that teachers felt empowered and were able to more
effectively address problems collectively. Teacher collaboration on
problem solving and curriculum development will enhance preschool
instruction and student learning. The findings also have significance
for preschool center directors, who regularly deal with supervision and
administration of curriculum development and instruction for diverse
student populations.
Discussion
The success of lesson study in Japan may be due to the culturally
embedded characteristics in the practice. Lesson study is a culturally
centered professional development tool that stresses group rather than
individual goals and outcomes. Interest in lesson study has increased
recently in the United States. Further research examining its impact on
U.S. teacher professional development is likely to continue to show its
benefits (Lewis, Perry, & Murata, 2006).
The current plethora of master teacher education programs and
certification criteria suggests that teacher educators have accepted the
master teacher concept as a proven resource to augment teacher inquiry,
reflection, and professional development. This study found no observable
outcomes as a result of using a master teacher with early childhood
educators. Future research in this area should focus on the significant
characteristics of a master teacher that have positive outcomes for
early childhood practitioners. Additionally, investigation into the
tasks that influence the teacher-mentor relationship is warranted.
Finally, it is important to conceptualize and clarify relevant
teacher-mentor interactions that yield positive outcomes for early
childhood educators, as well as for teachers at the primary, middle, and
high school levels.
Tice (1999) has suggested a similar paradigm shift, reporting that
1) there is an increasing focus on knowledge construction rather than
the banking concept of learning, 2) faculty are becoming less autonomous
and thus building more cross-disciplinary partnerships, 3) educational
researchers are becoming less individualistic in their work and more
collaborative, and 4) isolated research is moving toward greater
research in the public interest (Popkewitz, 2006). Educators need to
consider alternative modes of scholarship in which they conduct
collaborative research in and with school communities. This form of
engaged scholarship can transform the role of teacher educators. Faculty
who are engaged in research as partners with school communities foster a
mutually beneficial relationship (Boyer, 2000). This is possible when
the university puts its research into action, thereby allowing schools
an opportunity to receive additional resources that may not have been
available otherwise.
When early childhood educators can function effectively in
conceptualizing and responding to the needs of young children,
particularly when working in culturally diverse classrooms, they are
able to serve as catalysts for children's intellectual growth and
development. Further, investment in the professional development of
early childhood practitioners places emphasis on prevention rather than
rehabilitation of students' educational problems that often become
evident during the adolescent years. As stated above, while current
efforts to explore the utility of lesson study in the United States have
focused on mathematics education at the middle and high school levels,
the first author of this article gained knowledge about lesson study
from early childhood educators while providing teacher training in
Japan, where it is widely used among practitioners working with young
children. More research using lesson study with early childhood
educators in the United States can aid teacher educators in
understanding how collaboration, reflection, and mentoring can influence
teacher efficacy, which, in turn, can augment student achievement,
especially for underachieving populations.
In sum, this study examined whether or not early childhood teachers
would become more culturally aware, reflective practitioners when they
used a mediated form of lesson study within a collegial environment. A
case study method was employed to investigate four female, early
childhood teachers at a preschool, who developed mini-research projects.
Findings showed that reflective practices increased collaboration among
the teachers. The collaborative process also yielded teacher
empowerment. Subsequent areas of interest in this study and
opportunities for future research are the use of master teachers, the
benefit of engaged scholarship for faculty, and the investment of
professional development for early childhood educators.
References
Allen, K. K., & Miller, M. S. (1990). Teacher-researcher
collaboratives: Cooperative professional development. Theory Into
Practice, 29, 196-203.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2005). Quality early education and
child care from birth to kindergarten. Pediatrics, 15, 187-192.
Barbour, C., Barbour, N. H., & Scully, P. A. (2005). Families,
schools, and communities: Building partnerships for educating children.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Behar-Horenstein, L. S. (1994). What's worth knowing for
teachers? Educational Horizons, 73, 37-46.
Boyer, W. A. R. (2000). Care for the caregivers: An interpersonal
journey. The International Journal of Early Childhood, 32(1), 41-47.
Capobianco, B. M., Lincoln S., Canuel-Browne, D., & Trimarchi,
R. (2006). Examining the experiences of three generations of teacher
researchers through collaborative science teacher inquiry. Teacher
Education Quarterly, 33(3), 61-78.
Corcoran, P. B., Walker, K. E., & Wals, E. J. (2004). Case
studies, make-your-case studies, and case stories: A critique of
case-study methodology in sustainability in higher education.
Environmental Education Research, 10, 7-21.
Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting
and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Creswell, J. W. (2006). Qualitative inquiry & research design:
Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Davis, N. T., & Blanchard, M. R. (2004). Collaborative teams in
a university statistics course: A case study of how differing value
structures inhibit change. Social Science & Mathematics, 104,
279-287. Retrieved 10/26/05.
Doyle, W. (1985). Effective teaching and the concept of the master
teacher. Elementary School Journal, 86, 27-33.
Dunn, J. (1999). Introduction: New directions in research on
children's relationships and understanding. Social Development, 8,
137-142.
Espinosa, L. M. (2005). Curriculum and assessment considerations
for young children from culturally, linguistically, and economically
diverse backgrounds. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 837-853.
Fawcett, L. M., & Garton, A. F. (2005). The effect of peer
collaboration on children's problem solving ability. British
Journal of Education Psychology, 75, 157-169. Retrieved 11/11/05.
Fernandez, C. (2002). Learning from Japanese approaches to
professional development: The case of lesson study. Journal of Teacher
Education, 53, 393-405.
Fernandez, C., Cannon, J., & Chokshi, S. (2003). A U.S.-Japan
lesson study collaboration reveals critical lenses for examining
practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 171-185.
Fernandez, C., & Chokshi, S. (2002). A practical guide to
translating lesson study for a U.S. setting. Phi Delta Kappan, 84,
128-134.
Gonzales, L. D. (2004). Sustaining teacher leadership: Beyond the
boundaries of an enabling school culture. Lanham, MD: University Press
of America.
Grunberg, J., & Armellini, A. (2004). Teacher collegiality and
electronic communication: A study of the collaborative uses of email by
secondary teachers in Uruguay. The British Journal of Educational
Technology, 35, 597-606.
Henry, A. (2006). Historical studies: Groups/ Institutions. In G.
Camilli, P. Elmore, & J. Green (Eds.), Complementary methods for
research in education (pp. 271-293). Washington, DC: American
Educational Research Association.
Hernandez, D. (2004, September). Children in newcomer families.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Early Childhoood Funders,
San Francisco.
Hiebert, J., & Stigler, J. W. (2000). A proposal for improving
classroom teaching: Lessons from the TIMSS video study. Elementary
School Journal, 101, 3-20.
Hobson, D. (2001). Action and reflection: Narrative and journaling
in teacher research. In Burnaford, G., Fischer, J., & Hobson, D.,
Teachers doing research: The power of action through inquiry (2nd ed.,
pp. 7-27). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Holubec, E. J. (1991). Cooperation
in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.
Jungck, S. (2001). How does it matter? Teacher inquiry in the
traditions of social science research. In G. Burnaford, J. Fischer,
& D. Hobson, Teachers doing research: The power of action through
inquiry (2nd ed., pp. 329-344). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kemple, K. M., David, G. M., & Hysmith, C. (1997). Teachers
interventions in preschool and kindergarten children's peer
interactions. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 12, 34-47.
King, J., Henington, M., & Ladson-Billings, G. (2003). A
researcher/practitioner online collegial learning circle: Animating
improved practice/digitizing (multi)cultural knowledge. Final Report
submitted to the Spencer Foundation, Chicago, IL.
Landerholm, E., Gehrie, C., & Hao, Y. (2004). Educating early
childhood teachers for the global world. Early Childhood Development and
Care, 174, 593-606.
Lewis, C. (2000). Lesson study: The core of Japanese professional
development. AERA annual meeting, New Orleans. www.lessonresearch.net.
Lewis, C., & Tsuchida, I. (1988). A lesson is like a swiftly
flowing river: Research lessons and the improvement of Japanese
education. American Educator, Winter, 14-17 & 50-52.
Lewis, C., Perry, R., & Murata, A. (2006). How should research
contribute to instructional improvement? The case of lesson study.
Educational Researcher, 35, 3-14.
Little, J. (1982). Norms of collegiality and experimentation:
Workplace conditions of schools success. American Educational Research
Journal, 19, 325-340.
Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
McDonald, J. P., & Klein, E. J. (2003). Networking for teacher
learning: Toward a theory of effective design. Teachers College Record,
105, 1606-1621.
MacPherson, I., Brooker, R., & Ainsworth, P. (2000). Case study
in the contemporary world of research: Using notions of purpose, place,
process and product to develop some principles for practice. The
International Journal of Social Research Methodology Theory and
Practice, 3, 49-62.
Meek, C. (2003). Pathways to effective teaching. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 18, 104-120.
O'Hanlon, B. (1994). The third wave. Family Therapy Networker,
18, 19-29.
Popkewitz, T. S. (2006). Hopes of progress and fears of the
dangerous: Research, cultural theses, and planning different human
kinds. In G. Ladson-Billings & W. F. Tate (Eds.), Research in the
public interest: Social justice, action, and policy (pp. 119-140). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Rust, F., & Meyers, E. (2006). The bright side: Teacher
research and the context of educational reform and policy making.
Teachers and Teaching, 12, 69-86.
Rubaie, T. A. (2002). The rehabilitation of the case study method.
European Journal of Psychotherapy, Counseling & Health, 5, 31-47.
Seifert, K. (2005). Learning about peers: A missed opportunity for
educational psychology. Clearing House, 78, 239-243. Retrieved 10/26/05.
Semmler, P. L., & Williams, C. B. (2000). Narrative therapy: A
storied context for multicultural counseling. Journal of Multicultural
Counseling & Development, 28(1), 51-62.
Shindler, J.V. (2004). "Greater than the sum of the
parts?" Examining the soundness of collaborative exams in teacher
education courses. Innovative Higher Education, 28, 273-283. Retrieved
11/11/05.
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research and
practice. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Snow-Gerono, J. L. (2005). Naming inquiry: PDS teachers'
perceptions of teacher research and living an inquiry stance toward
teaching. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(4), 79-95. Retrieved 11/21/06.
Spencer, S.A. (2005). Lynne Cook and June Downing: The practicality
of collaboration in special education service delivery. Intervention and
School and Clinic, 40, 296-300. Retrieved 10/26/05.
Stevahn, L., Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Oberle, K., &
Wahl, L. (2000). The effects of conflict resolution training integrated
into a kindergarten curriculum. Child Development, 71, 772-784.
Retrieved 11/11/05.
Tice, T. (1999). Service learning. The Education Digest, 64, 38-39.
Tsaparlis, G., & Gorezi, M. (2005). A modification of a
conventional expository physical chemistry laboratory to accommodate an
inquiry/project-based component: Method and students' evaluation.
Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education, 5,
111-131. Retrieved 11/11/05.
Valli, L., van Zee, E., Rennert-Ariev, P., Mikeska, J.,
Catlett-Muhammad, S., & Roy, P. (2006). Initiating and sustaining a
culture of inquiry in a Teacher Leadership Program. Teacher Education
Quarterly, 33(3), 97-114.
Vermette, P., & Harper, L., & DiMillo, S. (2004).
Cooperative & collaborative learning ... with 4-8 year olds: How
does research support teachers' practice? Journal of Institutional
Psychology, 31(2), 130-134. Retrieved 10/26/05.
Webre, E. C. (2005). Enhancing reading success with collaboratively
created progress charts. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40, 291-295.
West-Olatunji, C., & Behar-Horenstein, L. (2005). Teaching and
learning in fact-based pedagogy. Curriculum professors debate
multicultural/pluralistic issues in standards based curriculum (pp.
7-14). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Yin, R. K. (1993). Applications of case study research. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cirecie West-Olatunji
Linda Behar-Horenstein
Jeffrey Rant
University of Florida
Table 1: Completed Lesson Study Form From the Study
Date: XX/XX/XXXX -- Time: XX:Xxam -- Classroom: Teacher: Mrs. X
1: Steps of 2: Student 3: Teacher's
the lesson: activities/ response to
learning expected student student
activities dent reactions reactions/
and key or responses things to
questions remember
(and time
allocation) *
(*) Column #1 This lesson I expect the I will talk to
is usually will be open children to be the children
laid out for one hour, able to pour about the
in order but each the rice and importance
by parts student will beans into the of rain sticks
of the have 10 minutes toilet paper and what they
lesson or more tube. I will are used for.
(e.g., if needed. expect that
launch, half the I will ask the
investigation, The children children children how
congress, will use will be able the rain sticks
applications, toilet paper to place the sound.
etc.), and tubes, rice, wax paper on I will ask the
also includes and beans. the end of the children if it
the allocation With these tube. gives them
of time items, the a calming
for each children will I expect the sensation and
of these make rain students to if it makes
parts. sticks to go enjoy playing them want to
along with with the rain relax.
the rain stick tubes
forest theme by dancing
for the week. with them
and hearing
the different
sounds they
make.
I also expect
that 16 children
will do this
activity
within the
one hour of
activity time.
Guiding Ex: How Ex: What do Ex: Is there
Questions should I expect of anything
this lesson my students? specific I want
progress? How will they to remember
(How much respond? to do? Any
time should reminders for
I spend?) my students?
4: Goals and 5: Notes
method(s) of (What Happened?
evaluation What have you
learned?)
(*) Column #1 My first goal The children
is usually is to have enjoyed the
laid out 16 children activity and
in order come to my only 15 children
by parts activity and came to the
of the be able to activity.
lesson enjoy it and The children
(e.g., be able to understood
launch, walk away the waiting
investigation, when done list and
congress, to find an- waited their
applications, other turn to make
etc.), and activity a rain stick.
also includes "if they
the allocation want to." After meeting
of time with the
for each My second group on
of these goal is that Tuesday, the
parts. the children following
understand ideas were
that the discussed.
classroom
has no * Next use
borders and a funnel for
that they the children
can choose to pour in the
activities by seeds or have
themselves. the children
use tweezers.
* Use picture
cards for a
new waiting
list system.
* Visit other
classrooms
to see the
difference in
borderless
classrooms
* Also see if
each classroom
has open
communication
to allow the
borderless
method to
work.
Guiding Ex: What
Questions should I
look for to
know that
my goal(s)
have been
achieved?
NOTE: Adapted from the Lesson Research Group webpage,
www.tc.edu/lessonstudy/, by M. Yoshida, S. Chokshi, &
C. Fernandez. Copyright 2001 by Lesson Study Research Group.
