Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting technology and women time allocation in district Bagh and Battagram Pakistan.
Ahmed, Ajaz ; Mustafa, Usman ; Khalid, Mahmood 等
Water is essential requirement of life and its accessibility is the
basic right of all human beings. Safe drinking water is an essential
component of primary health. It plays a vital role in livelihood, food
security and sustainable development. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Technology (RRWH) is a best alternative approach to conserve and supply
water. Especially, it is crucial in seismically sensitive,
geographically uneven, and countryside areas. A large majority of
population in Pakistan is living in areas, where access to safe drinking
water is very serious issue. In these areas most vulnerable segment of
population is women because they are the ones who have to fetch water
from far flung areas for their daily consumption. In order to resolve
the issue of water in Pakistan, a number of public and private agencies
are working in this field. Different approaches, techniques, and
practices are being adopted to address this issue. Present study
evaluates the impact of RRWH technology with special reference to women
time allocation in Bagh and Battagram districts of Pakistan. Analyses
were carried out using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique to quantify
the results. The results reveal that RRWH technology is viable, time
saving, women friendly, and sustainable source of safe drinking water
supply, especially in seismically sensitive, geographically uneven, and
countryside areas of Pakistan.
JEL classification: O13, Q25, Q56, Q58, R28
Keywords: Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting: Safe Drinking Water,
Seismically Sensitive, Geographically Uneven, and Countryside: Women,
AJK and KP, Pakistan.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is essential requirement of life and accessibility to safe
drinking water is the fundamental right of every human being [IUCN
(2004)]. It is not only an essential component of primary health care
but it also plays a vital role in livelihood security and national
economic development [Mustafa, el al. (2009)]. With the passage of time
water is becoming a scarce resource all over the world. It is scarcer in
low income countries, where majority of the poor resides in the rural
areas, results in water allocation problems [Xinshen, et al. (2005)].
This scarcity is due to number factors like, agricultural
intensification, industrialisation, and increasing population pressure.
It is the dire need of time to formulate some practical strategies to
address the issues of water crisis. In this regard a number of
approaches including Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) are being practiced.
RWH is one useful approach to conserve, store and utilise rain
water from different catchment areas. In addition to sustainable supply
of water for domestic consumption, this technology will ease out the
pressure from existing water sources. RWH is an old but useful approach
to channel and use the rainwater in productive manners [Li, et al.
(2000) and UNEP (2009)]. It has special importance for Pakistan as the
country is confronting acute water shortage. World Bank (2005) has
already declared Pakistan as water stressed country in South Asia.
Supplying water in hilly areas is time consuming, hazardous, and costly
business with numerous risks involved with it [Baguma, el al. (2010)].
World Bank (2005) also recognised that RWH is the most suitable and
viable approach for hilly areas of Pakistan.
Given the increasing risk of water crisis in Pakistan, some
agencies have taken the initiatives to ensure the sustainable supply of
water in rural areas. In this regard Earthquake Rehabilitation and
Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) has initiated a project of Rooftop Rain
Water Harvesting (RRWH) technology in seismically sensitive areas of
Pakistan. This project has been scaled up from its pilot to full fledge
implementation phase which includes almost all earthquake affected
districts of KPK and AJK Pakistan. Governments of Pakistan along with a
number of donor agencies are supporting this project right from its
conception. The project has targeted rural communities of earthquake
affected areas, who are most vulnerable with respect to water
availability. Present study is the evaluation of pilot phase of the
project and it analyses the technology with special reference to women
time allocation in those communities.
The rationale of the study is that, before this technology woman
were fetching water far from their dwelling units which required large
amount of time to visit the source of water every day. After the
implementation of the technology it is assumed that women time of water
fetching has significantly reduced. Based on this presumption that RRWH
technology has altered the time allocation of women in respective
communities, present study aims to investigate the overall impact of
technology on women time allocation.
2. RRWH TECHNOLOGY AND WOMEN TIME ALLOCATION
Since this is the first ever initiative when RRWH technology is
being formally implemented at large scale, there is paucity of
literature on the subject from Pakistan. Authors could not find any
study in Pakistan on RRWH technology and specifically its impact on time
allocation. However, some studies on RRWH technology with special
reference to time allocation were found from abroad but most of the
authors studied the phenomena theoretically and have not tested the
impact empirically. Study has cited some of the relevant research in
following paragraphs.
Lehmann and Tsukada (2009) and examined rainwater harvesting with
reference to health and time allocation. They conclude that this
technology reduces cost incurred on health as well as time allocation
for curing sick people, which could be used for profitable activities.
Similarly, young children (both male and female) can go to school who
are otherwise busy in fetching water. Furthermore, this system improves
the sanitation and hygiene facilities to rural population by providing
them water at home on sustainable basis.
Baguma, et al. (2010) studied rainwater harvesting with reference
to human health and time allocation. Using the data and empirical
evidences they concluded that this technology reduces cost incurred on
health as well as time allocation for curing sick people, which could be
used for profitable activities. They have indirectly reckoned the saving
of time. Study also reported that, due to this technology young children
(both male and female) have the time which they were spending to collect
water before this technology. Now they can go to school who are
otherwise busy in fetching water. Moreover, this system improves the
sanitation and hygiene facilities to rural population by providing them
water at home on sustainable basis. Study also argued that this
technology has reduces the associated risks.
In Kenya, Elizabeth, et al. (2006) has conducted a research on
water, women and social organisations. They have conducted a survey of
some villages to investigate water-women nexus. Findings of the study
exposed that, safe and easily accessible water has brought a range of
benefits to those households, especially through activities where women
have special responsibilities. Study reported that, households with
improved water access have saved time, improved health, cleaner clothes,
and increased production of tea seedlings, milk and vegetables, with the
net result of significant increases in income controlled by women.
3. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND ECONOMETRIC SPECIFICATION
This section briefly describes the channels through which the
Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting (RRWH) technology and other control
variables affect the women time allocation. Theoretically speaking, the
RRWH technology is expected to have positive effect on women time
allocation in terms of reducing their time which they are spending on
water fetching. The RRWH technology has huge potential in terms of water
supply and it facilitates women by providing them required amount of
water which is otherwise brought from distanced water sources.
Consequently, this facility saves their time which can be used in other
productive and healthy activities.
Hence, one may expect positive impact of the RRWH technology on
time allocation in rural and hilly areas. This variable of
'RRWH' is quantified by using a dummy variable where
"1" represents the household possessing this technology (also
called the "treated group") and "0" represents the
household where this technology is not provided (also named as
"control group"). On the other hand, the women time allocation
is quantified as the 'TWT' total work time which they allocate
in different activities time. The control variables used in the women
time allocation model include Region, age of the women (Age), household
income (HHInc), and education of the woman (Edu), distance from water
sources (DWS), and social activities time (SAT).
The variable "region" is quantified using '1'
for Bagh and '0' for Battagram. This variable is incorporated
in order to investigate whether there is any impact of regional
differences. "Age" denotes the age of water fetching woman.
The expected sign of its coefficient is positive, because with the
increase in age, women allocation of time is expected to increase.
Because the body and the resistance weaken as the woman enters to older
age group. Subsequently, a positive sign of the coefficient may also be
expected.
Education, taken as the years of schooling of the water fetching
woman, is expected to improve the women time allocation for the reason
that the educated women are comparatively better aware of the productive
allocation of time. Therefore, its expected sign is positive. DWS
measures the distance of water source from dwelling unit in kilometers
and its probable sign is negative, HHInc is the income of a household
which may affect time allocation negatively because women time
allocation may reduced due to increased purchasing power for goods and
services from market. SAT is the social activities time which women
allocate in their daily routine to interact with their friend, relatives
and neighbours. Expected sign of its coefficient is positive. In the
light of above discussion, the following econometric specification can
be given:
TWT = [[alpha].sub.0] + [[alpha].sub.1]RRWH + [[alpha].sub.2]Region
+ [[alpha].sub.3]Ages + [[alpha].sub.4]HHInc + [[alpha].sub.5] SAT
[[alpha].sub.6] Edu + [[alpha].sub.7]DWS + [epsilon] (1)
In order to estimate the above equation Ordinary Least Square
methodology was used.
4. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
4.1. Overview of the Study Area
Study area includes two villages; one from district Battagram and,
other from Bagh where RRWH project has been initiated. Battagram is a
district of Hazara division in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan.
Total land area of the district is 1301 square kilometers and the
estimated population in 2004-05 was 361,000 [Battagram (2007)]. This
district is located at 90 km from Abbottabad and 240 km from the capital
of Pakistan Islamabad. Three main languages; Pashto, Hindko and Gojri
are also spoken in the district. English and Urdu are also spoken and
understood in offices. Battagram obtained the status of district in July
1993 when it was upgraded from a Tehsil and separated from Mansehra
district [Battagram (2007)]. Before Battagram obtained the status of
district, it was a Tehsil of the Mansehra district.
RRWH technology has been executed in Saroona, a village of Allai
which is one of the two Tehsils, or subdivisions, of Battagram district.
The geography of Allai valley is such that it is bounded by Kohistan on
the north and east, by the Kaghan valley, Nandhiarh and Deshi of
Deshiwals on the south, and by the Indus river on the west. Valley has
been ruled by Khans (tribal rulers) until 1949, than it became the part
of Pakistan [Battagram (2007)]. The residents of Allai valley were badly
affected by the massive Earthquake on October 8, 2005 which destroyed
the 'cable way'; a way to allow residents to cross the Indus
River. Pilot phase of RRWH system was implemented in Saroona which is
one village of union council of Allai. The total no of households of
Saroona village are 330 [Battagram (2007)]. The total population of the
village is 5000, whereas the average household size is 8. In pilot phase
the facility of RRWH was provided to 50 households.
Bagh is one among the eight districts of Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan. Total territory of the district is 1,368 square kilometers
[Bagh (2007)]. Bagh district has three sub-divisions, namely Dhirkot,
Bagh and Haveli. It is said that name of the city is from a Bagh
(garden) which was set up by the landowner of the area, which is now
forest department. As a result, the area that is now the district
headquarters was named "Bagh". This city was badly affected by
the Earthquake on October 8, 2005 which destroyed the overall
infrastructure of the district.
Survey of present study has been carried out from, Chitra Topi,
which is the project site of RRWH. It is a village of union council Topi
in district Bagh. This village is situated in the North East of Bagh
city at an altitude of 7000 feet above from sea level and on a distance
of 18 KM main city of Bagh. Topography of most of the Bagh city is based
on hilly terrain. Number of the households in this village are 274.
Total population of the village is 1918 in which males are 940 and
females are 978. Overall literacy rate of the village is above 80
percent [Bagh (2007)]. The main clans of the Chitra Topi are Suddhen,
Mughal, Qureshi'. Suddhen is the most influential clan that take
the lead and dominate in taking decisions at the local level.
4.2. Survey Methodology
To collect the data survey was carried out through personal
interviews of respondents in the selected villages of both districts
(Bagh and Battagram). This survey was based on pretested questionnaire
which was followed to construct a sound and well-developed
questionnaire. Population of the present study is based on two groups;
the one provided with RRWH systems is called the "treated
group", while the other using the traditional water supply sources
within the same localities is entitled the "control group".
The purpose behind this sampling pattern is to investigate comparative
impact analysis of RRWH system.
In order to conduct the analysis, the study has taken the entire
population of treated group. Because treated group was of 50 household
in each village. Sample from control group of population was picked for
analysis using Random Sampling technique. The methodology is selected
for the reason that all samples of the same size have an equal chance of
being selected from the population. Secondly the population in control
group was homogenous with respect to water supply. Lastly, the approach
was suitable provided the resource limitation, location and
facilitation. The optimum sample is the one which maximises precision
per unit given the cost, and by this criterion, Random Sampling is often
superior over other methods.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1. Descriptive Analysis
In descriptive analysis some of the important variables regarding
water fetching women are presented. These variables includes; their
Ages, Education, Social Activities Time, Sleeping Time, and Distance
from Water Source, Per Day Time for Water Fetching, Persons Involved in
Water Fetching, Daily Saved Time due to RRWH and its spending are
included. In addition to overall sample results, statistics of the both
regions are also presented separately (Table 5.1 a). These summary
statistics are clearly indicating the variations in sample across the
villages. Moreover, these findings are contributing yielding a support
to interpretation and understanding of econometric results.
Table 5.1 (a) shows that average age of water fetching women is 33
years in the overall sample, as well as at village level. Moreover, 12
years as minimum and 65 years as maximum age were reported across the
sample. This information shows that on average water fetching women in
both regions are young, which is understandable because it is a tedious
job and it is difficult for old women to perform it. On the other hand
it is the most potential age group which has comparatively higher
opportunity cost of time. The water fetching time of women could be
resourcefully utilised by adopting this alternative technology for water
supply.
Women Education is very crucial variable of the study, because it
affects the overall socio economic conditions of women, especially in
decision making regarding employment, time allocation in domestic
activities, maternal health,-sanitation and hygiene, and their medical
checkups etc. The difference of education and its impacts are
highlighted by the present study, because women education is totally
different across the two regions (Table 5.1 a). Average years of
schooling for women in Bagh are 7, whereas in Battagram there were no
educated women. Furthermore, in Bagh maximum years of schooling was 16
years but in case of Battagram there was only one women which had 7
years of schooling, and it was the highest in that area.
Distance from water source is the average distance women have to
walk while carrying the water. This variable has special importance with
reference to women health and their time allocation. Survey of present
study revealed that average distance from water source is 0.6 kilometer
in Bagh while it was one kilometer in Battagram. This means that on
average women have to walk more in Battagram, so they may be more
vulnerable to water fetching hazards. Minimum distance reported in Bagh
is 0.1 kilometer and maximum is 2 whereas, in Battagram it is 0.2, and 3
kilometers, respectively.
In rural areas, women often interact with their neighbours,
relatives and close friends during the usual routine, which come under
their social activities time. So, study has investigated their social
activities time in order to analyse its pattern and impact on women
comfort in both communities. Overall per day average time allocation for
social activities is around one hour, but among both villages, it is
higher in Bagh and lesser in Battagram. Because women in Battagram
region are not allowed to go out of their homes. The minimum per day
average time allocation for social activities is zero and maximum is 3
hours for both communities (Table 5.1 a). This is the social capital of
rural women which help them in easing out the stress and managing daily
life problems.
Sleeping time of women is very crucial indicator with reference to
women well-being. On average reported sleeping time of women was 7 hours
in both villages (Table 5.1 a) whereas, minimum and maximum time was 5
and 9 hours, respectively. This shows that there was no such dilemma of
sleep shortage in these regions, as people go earlier for sleeping due
to tiresome work routine. And in mountainous areas, people avoid working
and moving in late evening and prefer to sleep early. Moreover, in the
sample areas there are no such provisions like cable, internet etc.
where people can engage themselves for long after evening.
Per Day Time for Water Fetching is an important variable with
regard to women time allocation. It is determined by the distance of
water source. Average water fetching time in Bagh and Battagram was 4
and 6 hours, respectively. The average water fetching time in Battagram
was higher by 2 hours, which was due to the higher average distance of
water source from dwelling unit (Table 5.1 a). Minimum time required for
fetching water reported in Bagh was 0.25 hour whereas; in Battagram it
was one hour. Similarly, maximum time allocated to water fetching in
Battagram was 12 hours a day while, in Bagh it was 10 hours.
Another important variable regarding water fetching is Persons
Involved m Water Fetching. Study reveals that on average each household
had 2 individuals who were fetching water in both regions. Single person
in fetching water reflected as minimum number of water fetching
individuals in both villages (Table 5.1 b). Maximum number of water
fetching individual was 4 and 5 in Bagh and Battagram respectively.
Daily Saved Time in hours is a crucial variable of the present
study. It is based on women saving of time which become possible after
getting installed the RRWH System. Findings of the study yielded that in
both villages women save on average 6 hours of daily water fetching time
due to this facility (Table 5.1 b). Notably, minimum time saving was 2
and maximum was 10 hours in both study areas. Findings of the present
study are in line with the study of Elizabeth, et al. (2006). It is
worthwhile to mention that, this saving of time due to RRWH technology
was being invested in productive activities by the women.
These activities includes, entertainment and social activities,
agriculture and livestock, domestic work, education and awareness etc.
(Table 5.1 c). Findings yields that women from Bagh are spending 20
percent of their saved time in entertainment and social activities which
indicates that they have the social capital and they are doing
investment to enrich it. Social capital plays a vital role in women
welfare because, they discuss their daily life problems and get or offer
help within their networks.
Contrary to Bagh, women in Battagram are not spending their saved
time in social activities and have zero social interaction with other
women in communities on regular basis. The reason behind this is that
culturally women in Battagram rarely go out of their homes, so they
cannot form such networks with other community members as of Bagh. This
is important finding of the study because it indicates the strength of
social networking in both regions.
Agriculture and livestock is the main sector of rural economy
everywhere in the world. Because it provides food, fiber, fodder and
livelihood sources to rural population. Moreover, due to having enough
available land and less off farm income opportunities, rural household
prefer to cultivate crops for their sustenance. Study exposed that women
are utilising almost 25 percent of their time saving in agriculture and
livestock in both regions (Table 5.1 c). It means that agriculture and
livestock is getting almost equal attention and share of women's
saved time in Bagh and Battagram.
In domestic work women from Battagram are dominating over women of
Bagh in allocating saved time. Study estimated that they are spending 70
percent of their saved time in domestic activities which is almost
double of that in Bagh. The reason is that women from Battagram had no
time allocation for social activities which is being used in domestic
work. Moreover, they have less education and mobility out of their
houses, which compel them to use saved time in domestic work. Education
and awareness includes time allocation in getting formal or informal
education, children tuition, or other awareness related activities at
household level. It also grabs more attention of women in Bagh, because
level of women education is higher in this area. They are spending 20
percent share of their saved time in education and awareness activities
whereas; in Battagram it is 5 percent.
5.2. Econometric Analysis
Using OLS technique study analysed the impact of RRWH technology on
women time allocation. Dependent variable is Total Work Time
'TWT' of water fetching women from early morning to night.
Explanatory variables includes focused variable 'RRWH' and
some controls. Study computed several models for women time allocation
form model 1 to 4 with different specifications in order to check the
robustness of the results. Model 1 is the baseline model that includes
relevant variables.
Amongst the explanatory variables Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting
'RRWH' is a dummy which is used as proxy for 'RRWH'
where '1' stands for treated group and '0' for the
control group. It is the key or focused variable of the study and
included in model to look into its impact on women total work time.
Findings yielded that, 'RRWH' has positive relation with
'TWT', dependent variable. Positive sign of variable was
expected and its value is significant. It is very prominent finding of
the study, which means that total available work time excluding water
fetching time has increased due to saving of time which otherwise
invested in water fetching.
And that time is being utilised in productive activities like
children brought up, agriculture and livestock, social activities and
entertainment, and domestic work. Saving and productive usage of time
has already been confirmed by the cross tabulations presented in
descriptive findings' section. It is important to mention here that
might be total saved time was not being fully utilised, but even if
women are using part of that time saving, still it is resourceful and it
enhances the wellbeing of communities which are using RRWH technology.
Region 'REGION' is also a dummy variable, included in
analysis to investigate the regional difference of time allocation. The
construction of this dummy is such that '1' represents Bagh
and '0' symbolises Battagram. The variable is significant with
negative sign which was expected. The reason of negative sign is that,
both regions of the study are different with respect to socio economic
and cultural aspects. For instance, as explained above education level
is different in both districts. Additionally women access to health,
education, nearest market and transportation service is comparatively
better in Bagh as of Battagram. Moreover, regional income disparity is
also found by the study, which is due to different levels of on and off
farm available job opportunities and role of agriculture and livestock
across the regions.
Women Ages 'AGES' was included in model to identify the
impact of women age on women time allocation. The variable was found to
be insignificant with expected sign. The reason of insignificance of
this variable is that on average women age was 33 years and data has
reported less variation in women ages. From this, one may conclude that
within this age group which comprised almost all young women,
comparatively vulnerability to disease is very less, and could manage
their domestic work easily. So women age has no affect on total work
time.
Household Income 'HHInc' is very important variable
engulfed in model. It is almost insignificant with negative sign which
was expected. Since there were no such employments opportunities for
women, where they can offer their services to market, they cannot avoid
the household jobs. Secondly, there is no trend of hiring house maids
and servants in those communities, due to which a women from household
having higher income cannot use the services of someone else to reduce
the time for domestic work. Thirdly, it is due to the social structure
of male dominant society, where women have very less share in decision
making. And they follow the set norms of society and do not demand more
than what they have.
Social Activities Time 'SAT' is highlighted as a
predictor of total work time. But this variable is also insignificant
having lowest value of its coefficient. Reason of insignificance of this
variable is that, when women go out of their homes for some work they
get the company of other women, which is their SAT as well as work. For
instance, when they go for shopping, fetching of water or herding their
animals in range lands, they get the company of their friends and
neighbours. Due to this reason their social activities time cannot
exactly isolated from their work time and is not significant in model.
Education of Women 'Edu' was taken in to model to analyse
its impact on overall women time allocation pattern. Women education is
insignificant in model and it has two reasons. One is that study have
dominant sample from Battagram where there is almost zero education of
women as compare to Bagh. Secondly, since all women in our sample are
either housewives or the most responsible member of their household,
they have to spend a good chunk of daily time for domestic work, and
they cannot avoid it even if they are educated. Thirdly, over there
women did not have such employment opportunities as of urban, so they
prefer to manage their domestic work, because culturally every potential
woman in rural household has to share the burden of family.
Distance from Water Source 'DWS' is comprised in model to
examine its impact on time allocation. This variable is not signifcant
because of shorter distance of water source. As the average distance of
water source from dwelling unit is 1 kilometer that is not large for the
people of hilly area. Secondly in each household there was more than one
woman which was fetching water, so time of water fetching was
distributed. Due to which it has no significant impact on overall time.
Moreover, distance from water source is not the sole determinant of time
allocation to water fetching and total work, but there are some other
factors like nature of tracks and travel hurdles which determine the
women time allocation.
[R.sup.2] shows the overall goodness of fit, which is significant
in case of model 1. In model 2 study excluded the 'DWS' which
has the lowest value of its coefficient and is not explaining the
dependent variable. Exclusion of this variable has not altered the sign
or significance of any variable. All other variables are remained same.
In model 3, study dropped the 'EDU' which was also
insignificant. Dropping this variable out of model, make no change in
the sign or significance of any other variable in the model 4. So, we
can say that this variable is also not a predictor of the women time
allocation. Study eliminated the 'HHInc' from model 4 due to
its insignificance. Elimination of this variable is also justified
because still all variables are same with their sign and significance.
6. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Present study is the assessment of RRWH technology to investigate
the impact of technology on women time allocation. Mainly there are two
parts of the present study. First part is based on descriptive analysis
which reports the potential of technology in saving the time of water
fetching women. This part of the study has also reported that saved time
of water fetching is being utilised by women in advantageous activities.
In this regard level of awareness and understanding of the technology is
found to be the most important determinant of effectiveness of the
technology in terms of accruing the optimum benefits.
Second part is based on econometric analysis which yielded that
there is significant positive impact of RRWH technology on women time
allocation. Study exposed that technology has reduced the time
allocation for fetching water. Findings endorsed that this system is
very viable, profitable, women friendly, and sustainable source of water
supply. The findings of the present study have following policy
implications.
(1) Firstly, the technology is very useful because it is saving
time which is being productively utilised. Therefore present study
recommends that the technology should be extended and installed in all
other areas.
(2) The system has special importance with reference to women
well-being, because it reduces the time and fatigue involved in fetching
water. Study proposes that women of those communities should be trained
to utilise their saving of time for some productive activities.
(3) Present study has found that education and awareness of
supported population played significant role in accruing the benefits of
any development. Based on this finding, study proposes that in order to
ensure the maximum benefits of any facility, beneficiaries should be
educated and trained so that they could get maximum out of that.
(4) RRWH is environmental friendly in many respects like it
increase water and soil conservation, ensure sustainable water supply,
put less pressure on existing water sources, has no such negative
externality, and enhances the poor's resilience against drought
conditions. So in order to ensure environmental sustainability this
technology should be promoted at large scale.
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Ajaz Ahmed <ajazahmed23@yahoo.com> is Student of MPhil
Environmental Economics at the Pakistan Institute of Development
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Table 5.1 (a)
Average of Women Ages, Education, Distance from Water Source (Km),
Social Activities Time (Hrs), and Sleeping Time (Hrs)
Distance
from
Women Women Water Social Sleeping
Ages Education Source Activities Time
Regions (Years) (Years) (kms) Time (hrs) (hrs)
Bagh 34 7 0.6 0.7 7
Battagram 33 0 1 0.5 7
Overall 33.5 3.5 0.8 0.6 7
Table 5.1 (b)
Average of Per Day Time for Water Fetching, Persons
Involved in Water Fetching and Daily Saved Time
Per Day Time Persons Daily Saved
Regions for Water Involved in Time (hrs) Due
Fetching (hrs) Water Fetching to RRWH System
Bagh 4 2 4
Battagram 6 2 6
Overall 5 2 5
Table 5.1 (c)
Saved Time Utilisation by Women
%age of Average Saved Time Allocated for Different
Productive Activities at each Location
Entertainment Agriculture Domestic Education
and Social and Work and
Regions Activities Livestock Awareness
Bagh 20 26 34 20
Battagram 0 25 70 5
Table 5.2
OLS Model of Women Time Allocation Model
Variables Model l Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
CONS 13.294 13.287 13.287 13.221
(31.88) *** (32.00) *** (24.50) *** (33.11) ***
RRWH 1.910 1.907 1.913 1.921
(6.74) *** (6.88) *** (6.88) *** (6.78) ***
REGION -0.984 -0.982 -0.864 -0.902
(-3.16) ** (-2.42) ** (-2.40) ** (-2.92) **
AGES 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.021
(1.57) (1.57) (1.58) (1.63)
HHINC -6.09e-06 -6.09e-06 -6.09e-06
(-0.47) (-0.47) (-0.47)
SAT 0.112 0.112 0.110 0.111
(0.67) (0.69) (0.67) (0.68)
EDU 0.017 0.017
(0.38) (0.38)
DWS -0.007
(-0.02)
No. of Obs 370 370 370 370
[R.sup.2] 0.1285 0.1285 0.1281 0.1277
Note: Robust t-statistics in parentheses.
* Significant at the 10 percent level.
** Significant at the 5 percent level.
*** Significant at the 1 percent level.
