Gender role orientation and relational closeness: self-disclosive behavior in same-sex male friendships.

Bowman, Jonathan M.

Although closeness has been defined and measured in various ways (for a review, see Berscheid, Snyder, & Omoto, 1989), lay views of what comprises close friendship often include an open sharing of information about the self, known as self-disclosure. The nature of self-disclosure and its occurrence in intimate friendship is one of the most oft-studied variables ill relational research (Stewart, Cooper, Stewart, & Friedley, 2003). In fact, in their seminal typology of intimacy types, Schaefer and Olson (1981) described emotional intimacy, in part, as the act of self-disclosing. According to Pearce and Sharp (1973), self-disclosure is defined as occurring "when people voluntarily communicate information about themselves that other people are unlikely to know or discover from other sources." Many researchers also believe that the communicated information must be private, with negative consequences believed likely to occur if that information were widely revealed (for reviews, see Miller & Steinberg, 1975; Parks, 1982).

Using this extended definition of self-disclosure, much research has found that men are relatively reticent to engage in self-disclosure within their male friendships. Men are unlikely to discuss personal topics such as sadness and fears with male friends (Allen & Hacoun, 1976; Davidson & Duberman, 1982; Rubin, 1983). Consistently, men seem reticent to converse in a relational or personal nature in same-sex dyads, preferring to stick to topical discussions (Davidson & Duberman). As evidence of the robustness of this effect, meta-analytic research tends to suggest that, compared to women, men are relatively inhibited to self-disclose within their same-sex friendships (d = .31 ; Dindia & Allen, 1992).

The current study scrutinizes a few key factors which may lead to this finding. This research looks at relationships between gender role orientation and self-disclosive behavior, empirically confronting the cultural stereotype that a masculine gender role orientation is negatively associated with self-disclosure and a feminine gender role orientation is positively associated with self-disclosure. This study also extends Bowman's (2004) research on men and perceived appropriateness of self disclosure by predicting the self-reported friendship behaviors of men rather than their inferences about hypothetical other men. Most significantly, the present research looks at the effects of self-disclosure on closeness within a relationship, with increasing self-disclosure positively correlated with increasing closeness within a relationship.

In addition to looking at the effects of gender role orientation within male friendships, the present study examines the relationship between self-disclosure and closeness, significantly using multiple conceptualizations of both. Sell-disclosure is seen as consisting of four key components: 1) amount of disclosure, 2) control of disclosure, 3) topical breadth of disclosure, and 4) valence of disclosure. Closeness also is operationalized using four elements: 1) one's perceived closeness to their friend, 2) one's perceived interdependence with their friend, 3) the strength of influence that the friend has over oneself, and 4) the diversity of activity in which the individual and their friend may engage.

Gender Role Orientation and Self-Disclosure

Sex and gender are the most oft-studied demographics with regard to their effect on self-disclosive behavior. Typically sex. gender, and gender roles are defined in terms of "those characteristics that actually differentiate the sexes, are stereotypically believed to differentiate the sexes, or are considered to be differentially desirable in the two sexes" (Lenney, 1991). In elucidating the measurement of sex and gender roles, scholars had historically viewed masculinity and femininity as polar opposites on a single continuum, with Bem(1974) being among the first to question said conceptualization. Bem instead argued that individuals may in fact be able to possess both masculine features and feminine features simultaneously. Bem's groundbreaking sex role inventory (Bem's Sex Role Inventory, or BSRI, 1974) treated masculinity and femininity as independent dimensions, rather than a single continuum, and allowed for the concomitant occurrence of sex roles. As arguably the most oft-used measure of gender, the BSRI measures the degree to which an individual self-identifies with socially desirable sex-typed characteristics, resulting in an index of one's masculine and feminine nature.

Indeed, not only does one's biological sex have an influence on disclosure, where men are relatively reticent to disclose to other men as compared to women (Blieszner & Adams, 1992; Duck & Pittman, 1994) and are not expected to disclose as much or as well as women (Duran & Kelly, 1985; Jones & Brunner, 1984), but gender role orientation is also very influential for male self-disclosure, such that masculinity is negatively related to the intimacy of disclosure among men (Winstead, Derlega, & Wong, 1984). Historically, masculine gender roles have been shown to lead to low intimacy and vulnerability in friendships (Prager, 1995). In fact, there is practically no masculine socialization to engage in any form of expressive communication (Wood, 2000). Indeed, the act of expressing emotion and receiving other men's expressions of emotion was actually associated with distress among men (Eisler, 1995), sometimes only occurring when the enactment of that behavior was forced or encouraged (Peterson, 2007).

One wonders if these sex- and gender-based behavioral propensities have an effect on male behavior. Research has found that individuals are relatively invested in their cognitive generalizations of the self (e.g., gender role orientation) and behave according to those self-representations (Markus. 1977). Individuals who have a masculine self-schema (i.e., a masculine cognitive generalization of the self) are able to process and enact stereotypically masculine information and behaviors more quickly than those individuals with a feminine self-schema (Markus, Crane, Bernstein, & Siladi, 1982). Therefore, those individuals who have cognitive representations of the self as masculine should desire to present the self consistently and be fluent in the successful portrayal of those behaviors. Additionally, scholars claim that performing "feminine" behaviors is seen as having a negative impact on the gender role orientations of men. particularly when performed in the presence of other men (Eagly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000: Hill, 2006). These social propensities become entrenched in men's same-sex friendship behaviors and are seen as gender differences in self-disclosure and the creation of intimacy (Fehr, 2004).

Relational Closeness

In addition to being affected by partner's gender role orientations, those relationships with more self-disclosure may, in fact, experience greater relational closeness. Because men are reticent to engage in self-disclosure unless they are very close to the other individual, these men may actually experience negative feelings due to the incongruency of engaging in a relationship that is disclosive but not close. As such, disclosure among men may, in fact, lead to increased perceptions of relational closeness within male friendships. Drawing upon and extending Bersheid, Snyder, and Omoto's (1989) definition, in the present study closeness is conceptualized as the extent to which an individual within a relationship exhibits interdependence, liking, and mutual knowledge of the other individual. This interdependence is exhibited when individuals have a strong impact upon diverse activities of another individual for a long duration (Kelley et al., 1983). Additionally, as this relationship progresses toward friendship, the disclosure of intimate and personal information is more likely to happen. If men believe that disclosive relationships must, by definition, be close, then this relational closeness is expected to occur, in part through increased knowledge of the other individual. As such, these relationships are expected to be seen as close, as a result of this self-disclosure within a relationship (for a review, see Fehr, 2000).

Hypotheses

Multiple factors are seen as influential in the nature of friendship among men. Gender is expected to affect the likelihood that men are going to engage in disclosive conversation with their male friends. In addition, it is expected that there is a robust relationship between self-disclosure and closeness. The present study scrutinizes these independent factors, communication processes, and relational outcomes using multiple conceptualizations of both.

As mentioned before, in general men are relatively reticent to disclose. As reviewed, the gender role orientations of these men are expected to have great explanatory power for the behaviors that they enact in their same-sex friendships. As each male participant's degree of adherence to masculine gender roles increases, his self-reported self-disclosure should decrease. Feminine gender role orientations are also stereotypically associated with disclosive, nurturing behavior (Bem, 1974). Consequently, as each male participant's degree of adherence to feminine gender roles increases, his self-reported self-disclosure should also increase. The prior rationale suggests the following hypothesis:

H1a-H1b: Male participant's self-reported self-disclosive behaviors (amount, control, breadth, and valence) within same-sex male friendships will a) be negatively correlated with one's degree of adherence to masculine gender roles (i.e., one's masculine gender role orientation) and b) be positively correlated with one's degree of adherence to feminine gender roles.

Some scholars view this self-disclosure as a primary means to the creation of feelings of closeness among same-sex friends, whereas other scholars view closeness among same-sex friends as created in one of two separate but equal ways, through either shared activity or self-disclosure (for a discussion, see Fehr, 2004). As aforementioned, this study adopts the theoretical perspective that self-disclosure is a primary means to the creation of feelings of closeness. Because of cultural views claiming that men would likely only disclose to close friends, men may uniquely create feelings of closeness by self-disclosing within their same-sex friendship. Alternately, the argument could be made that disclosure is an outcome of relationships that are already close. Regardless of causality, the hypothesized relationship is likely to occur. Using this perspective, self-disclosure is expected to be positively associated with feelings of closeness in same-sex friendship.

H2a-H2d: Self-reported, self-disclosive behavior (amount, control, breadth, and valence of disclosure) will be positively correlated with relational closeness as measured by a) perceived closeness, b) interdependence, c) diversity of shared activity, and d) partner's strength of influence.

Method

Participants

The participants in the study were 115 heterosexual male undergraduate students at a large Midwestern university who participated in exchange for class credit in their communication classes. Students ranged in age from 18 to over 25, with 50% of the students falling in ages 21-22. Participants also ranged from freshmen to senior-level students, with the majority (66%) of students being juniors or seniors.

Friendship Behavior Questionnaire

Upon beginning the study, participants were asked to answer the Friendship Behavior Questionnaire (FBQ). First, the FBQ contained selected items from the Revised Self-Disclosure Scale (Wheeless & Grotz, 19761 and Jourard and Lasakow's (1958) Self-Disclosure Scale, chosen to measure communicative depth, breadth, and valence. The closeness of the relationship through interdependence was measured using a modified version of Aron, Aron, and Smollan's (1992) Inclusion of the Other in Self scale, and also through items selected from the Berscheid, Snyder, and Omoto (1989) Relationship Closeness Inventory. Additionally, items were developed to measure closeness through the perceptions of other's knowledge of self. Other items also assessed closeness among friends through liking, including some items from Rubin's (1975) liking scale and McCroskey and McCain's (1974) Social Attraction scale, as well as basic demographic information.

Also embedded within the Friendship Behavior Questionnaire were questions which attempted to ascertain the gender role orientation of participants. Gender role orientation is often measured through the seminal and highly popular Bem's Sex Role Inventory (1974). Bem's inventory, though popular, has undergone significant revisions, particularly for issues of length. Because one of these revisions (Wheeless & Dierks-Stewart, 1981) has proven both reliable and significantly shorter in length (i.e., Aylor & Dainton, 2004; Reeder, 2003; Zhang, Norvilitis, & Jin, 2001), the questions used to determine the gender role orientation of participants were taken directly from the masculinity and femininity scales of the Revised Bem's Sex Role Inventory (for a thorough discussion of this version, see Wheeless & Dierks-Stewart, 1981) in an attempt to lessen participant fatigue.

Procedure

Introduction to the study. Participants volunteered for "a research study on friendship behaviors." Upon arriving at the study, participants were assigned to sit in a moderate-sized classroom with tables and chairs arranged such that participants are unable to see one another's writing surface.

Independent Variables

Gender role orientation. The questions used to determine the gender role orientation of participants were taken directly from the masculinity and femininity scales of the Revised Bem's Sex Role Inventory (Wheeless & Dierks-Stewart, 1981). Participants used a 7-point scale to rate the degree to which they possessed certain behavioral characteristics that were indicative of a masculine gender role orientation (e.g., "competitive,") and a feminine gender role orientation (e.g., "understanding.") The composite ten masculine items ([alpha] = .91) and ten feminine items ([alpha] = .93) each held together as one factor in a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988) and were seen as distinct factors from each other.

Self-Disclosure Items

Amount and control of disclosure. Originally, amount of disclosure and control of disclosure were intended to have separate measures. Seven questionnaire items were intended to measure participant's perceived amount of disclosure to their friends (e.g., "I often discuss my feelings about myself,") while five questionnaire items were intended to measure participant's perceived control of disclosure to their friends (e.g., "I intimately disclose who I really am, openly and fully in my conversation,") rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988) showed that a one-factor model better fit these twelve items than did the intended two-factor model, which separated both the amount of disclosure and control of disclosure. Indeed, with regard to the measure's face validity, further scrutiny shows congruence of the items if combined to observe the same factor (henceforth referred to as amount of disclosure). The combined twelve items (standardized Item [alpha] = .85) held together as one new factor in a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988) and were seen as distinct from the other self-disclosure items.

Breadth of disclosure. An additional measure of self-disclosive behavior looked at the breadth of disclosure. Four questionnaire items tested the extent to which participants engaged in a broad range of topics of discussion with their friend (e.g., "I talk about lots of different things with my friend,") rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) agree) to 7 (strongly agree). A composite individual measure was created by averaging these twelve items (standardized Item [alpha] = .85) which held together as one factor in a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988) and were seen as distinct from the other self disclosure items.

Valence of disclosure. Because the willingness to share negative information is typically conceptualized as being more disclosive (see Miller & Steinberg, 1975 for a review), the valence of self-disclosure is expected to be an additional useful indicator of disclosive behavior. Eleven questionnaire items composed the measure (standardized Item [alpha] = .67) testing the extent to which participants were willing to self-disclose negative information as compared to positive information (e.g., "I normally reveal "bad" feelings I have about myself,") rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Finally, these items also held together as one factor in a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton. 1988) and were seen as distinct from the other self-disclosure items.

Closeness Items

Perceived closeness. Three questionnaire items tested the extent to which participants rated their relationship with their friend as close (e.g., "This person is a very good friend of mine,") rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 9 (strongly agree). Because these three items were highly correlated, a composite individual measure was created by averaging the items (standardized Item [alpha] = .962) which held together as one factor in a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988).

Interdependence. To measure interdependence, a modified version of Aron, Aron, & Smollan's (1992) Inclusion of the Other in Self scale was included, showing increasingly overlapping circles as indicative of increasingly interdependent, "bonded" relationships.

Diversity of activity. The measure of diversity of activity consisted of a modified version (to reflect male friendships) of Berscheid, Snyder, & Omoto's (1989) Relationship Closeness Inventory diversity scale. Participants received the prompt: "In the past week, I did the following activities with my friend:" and then answered true or false to 22 items describing potential friendship activities (e.g., "watched TV or a video," "ate a meal"). The number of "true" responses was then summed to create a composite measure of the diversity of activities in which participants engaged with their male friend (standardized Item [alpha] = .90).

Strength of influence. This measure used portions of Berscheid, Snyder, & Omoto's (1989) Relationship Closeness Inventory, with participants rating 27 items assessing the strength of their friends' general influence on various aspects of life using a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). These items (e.g., "This friend influences important things in my life," and "This friend influences the basic values that I hold.") were then summed to create a composite measure of the strength of influence held by participants' friends (standardized Item [alpha] = .89).

Results

Distribution of Measures

In general, distributions for the predictor, process, and outcome variables that are used in the correlations seemed to approach a unimodal normal curve. Exceptions to this normalcy included mostly negatively skewed distributions (Masculine Gender Role Orientation, Feminine Gender Role Orientation, and Breadth of Disclosure) with only one positively skewed distribution (Diversity of Activity).

Hypothesis Tests

Hypothesis 1. The first hypothesis (H1a-H1b) predicted that one's gender role orientation would be significantly correlated with multiple elements of participants' self-reported self-disclosive behaviors (amount, breadth, and valence of disclosure), such that one's degree of masculine orientation would be negatively correlated with self-disclosive behaviors and one's degree of feminine orientation would be positively correlated with self-disclosive behaviors.

Hypothesis 1a--adherence to masculine gender roles. Using the aforementioned composite measures of one's amount, breadth, and valence of disclosure, correlations were employed to test the relationships between men's self-reported disclosive behaviors and their masculine gender role orientations. Counter to the predictions of Hypothesis 1a, a significant positive correlation emerged between men's self-reported amount of disclosure and their masculine gender role orientation, r (113) = .21, p < .05, and no significant correlation emerged between masculine gender role orientation and the breadth of disclosure, r (113) =. 15, n.s. As predicted, a negative correlation between a masculine gender orientation and one's willingness to share negative information did emerge, r (113) = -.20, p < .05.

Hypothesis 1b--Adherence to feminine gender roles. In a test of Hypothesis 1b, the composite measures of one's amount, breadth, and valence of disclosure were correlated with one's feminine role orientation. As hypothesized, a significant positive correlation emerged between men's self-reported amount of disclosure and their feminine gender role orientation, r (113) = .24, p < .01. Counter to predictions, no significant correlation emerged between men's breadth of disclosure and their feminine gender role orientation, r (113) = .07, n.s., or between men's valence of disclosure and their feminine gender role orientation, r (113) = -.08. n.s.

One's masculine gender role orientation was significantly related to one's willingness to share negative information as predicted, but was not related in the expected manner to the amount, or breadth of self-disclosure. Also, one's feminine gender role orientation was significantly related to one's amount of disclosure as expected, but no significant correlations emerged between the breadth and valence of disclosure. Therefore, the hypothesis (H1a-H1b) predicting a relationship between one's gender role orientation and one's self-disclosive behaviors with male friends received mixed support.

Hypotheses 1a-1b: Combined effects. The bivariate correlation tests between gender role orientation and self-disclosure ignore the strong positive correlation between masculine and feminine gender role orientations, r(113) = .63, p < .01. To examine the combined and independent effects of each gender role orientation on each of the three self-disclosure measures, a multiple regression analysis was performed. While the overall linear multiple regression analysis of the combined gender role orientations was statistically significant for amount of disclosure, F (3, 111) = 3.76, p < .05, the independent effects of masculine and feminine gender role orientation were not. It seems that the best predictor of amount of disclosure is the combination of both gender role orientations. Linear analyses of the combined gender role orientation variables were not statistically significant for either tests of breadth of disclosure, F (3, 111) = 1.41, n.s., or valence of disclosure (F (3, 111) = 2.48, n.s..

Hypotheses 2 a-d. The second series of hypotheses predicted that multiple measures of closeness (perceived closeness, interdependence, diversity of activity, and strength of influence) would be positively correlated with participants' self-reported self-disclosive behaviors (amount. breadth, and valence of disclosure).

Hypothesis 2a--Perceived closeness. Perceived closeness was expected to be positively related to all measures of self-disclosure. It was positively related to amount of disclosure (r (113) = .277, p < .005), and breadth of disclosure (r (113) = .409, p < .001). Counter to predictions, perceived closeness was not related to valence of disclosure (r (113) = -.058, n.s.). A linear multiple regression analysis with the independent variables of amount, breadth, and valence of disclosure entered simultaneously was performed to evaluate the effects of self-disclosive behavior on perceived closeness, and was statistically significant F (3, 111) = 9.85,p = .001, [R.sup.2] = .210. A multiple regression analysis found that amount ([beta] = .213, p = .05) and breadth ([beta] = .366, p = .001) of disclosure were significant independent predictors of perceived closeness; surprisingly, the regression analysis showed valence of disclosure to be a predictor of perceived closeness in the opposite direction than what was expected ([beta] = -.296, p = .001).

Hypothesis 2b--Interdependence. Interdependence was expected to be positively related to all measures of self-disclosure. It was positively related to amount of disclosure (r (113) = .281, p < .005), and breadth of disclosure (r (113) = .413, p < .001). Counter to predictions, interdependence was not related to valence of disclosure (r (113) = -.059, n.s.). The aforementioned linear multiple regression analysis was also performed to evaluate the effects of self-disclosive behavior on interdependence, and was statistically significant F (3, 111) = 10.13, p = .001, [R.sup.2] = .215. A multiple regression analysis confirmed that both amount ([beta] = .216, p < .01) and breadth ([beta] = .370, p < .001) were significant independent predictors of interdependence.

Hypothesis 2c--Diversity of shared activity. Diversity of shared activity was expected to be positively related to all measures of self-disclosure. It was positively related to amount of disclosure (r (113) = .343, p < .001), and valence of disclosure (r (113) = .231, p < .05). Counter to predictions, diversity of shared activity was not related to breadth of disclosure (r (113) = .167, n.s.). A linear multiple regression analysis with the independent variables of amount, breadth, and valence of disclosure entered simultaneously was performed to evaluate the effects of self-disclosive behavior on diversity of shared activity, and was statistically significant F (3, 111) = 7.98, p = .001, [R.sup.2] = .177. A multiple regression analysis found that amount of disclosure ([beta] = .296, p < .001) and valence ([beta] = .224, p < .05) of disclosure were significant independent predictors of diversity of shared activity*

Hypothesis 2d--Strength of influence. Finally, strength of influence was expected to be positively related to all measures of self-disclosure. It was positively related to amount of disclosure (r (113) = .314, p < .001), and valence of disclosure (r (113) = .260, p < .005). Counter to predictions, strength of influence was not related to breadth of disclosure. (r (113) = -.025, n.s.). The previously described linear multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of self-disclosive behavior on strength of influence, and was statistically significant F (3, 111) = 6.74,p = .001, [R.sup.2] = .154. Similar to the bivariate correlations reported above, a multiple regression analysis found that amount ([beta] = .302. p < .001) and valence ([beta] = .225, p < .05) of disclosure were significant independent predictors of strength of influence.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to show the relationships between one's gender role orientation and self-reported, self-disclosive behaviors. Additionally, the interrelationships between those self-disclosive behaviors were expected to be related to various measures of relational closeness between these established friends.

Gender Role Orientation

As noted earlier, gender effects on self-disclosive behavior received mixed results. Consistent with the body of literature implying that men are reticent to disclose negatively-valenced personal information about the self, an increasing masculine gender role orientation was associated with a decrease in the self-reported willingness to discuss negative information about the self. However, one's masculine gender role orientation was, surprisingly, not negatively related to the amount or breadth of self-disclosive behavior as expected.

One potential explanation that was explored post hoc to explain this finding was the androgynous nature of the individuals. While a masculine role orientation was expected to be negatively related to the occurrence of disclosive or emotionally intimate behaviors among male friends, it has been suggested that androgynous individuals initiate and maintain satisfying relationships to a greater degree than do individuals with a masculine or feminine gender role orientation (Ickes, 1985). As such, an individual with strong feminine and masculine characteristics (i.e., those individuals classified as having an androgynous role orientation) may be likely to engage in disclosure and friendship behaviors in a similar manner as was predicted for those with a high feminine gender role orientation; in essence, perhaps the presence of the feminine may "trump" the inhibiting nature of the masculine role orientation in certain categories.

To test this idea, a measure of androgyny was created by summing the average of the ten masculinity items and the average of the ten femininity items of the Revised BSRI, and then subtracting the absolute difference between the two averages (i.e., [(average of masculine) + (average of feminine)] - [absolute value of (average of masculine) - (average of feminine)1] to create a composite measure where the highest possible score (m = 14) represented an individual scoring as high as possible on both the masculine and feminine continua with no predilection toward either. The lowest possible score (m = 2) represented an individual with the most discrepant masculine and feminine scores or an individual scoring low on both continua. As would be expected using these post hoc predictions, increasing androgyny was positively correlated with an individual's amount of disclosure (r (113) = .26, p < .005), and perceptions of the other's knowledge of the self (r (113) = .291, p < .005). Expected post hoc correlations between this new measure of androgyny and measures of breadth (r (113) = . 132, n.s.) and valence of one's disclosure (r (113) = .123, n.s.) did not emerge, indicating that androgyny may not "trump" masculinity in the degree to which one discloses about a broad range of subjects or favors sharing mostly positively-valenced information about the self. Additionally, relational outcome variables like perceived closeness (r (113) = .336, p < .001) and interdependence (r (113) = .277, p < .005) were positively correlated with increasing androgyny as would be expected. However, this new measure of androgyny was not significantly related to outcome measures of strength of influence (r (113) = .029, n .s.) or diversity of activity (r (113) =. 179, n.s.). These post hoc findings suggest that perhaps friendship behaviors are not easily categorized by masculine or feminine gender role orientations as previously conceptualized. Rather. one's masculine and feminine gender role orientation have some influence on supporting and/or suppressing friendship behaviors and disclosure, but the combined effect of one's gender role orientations (i.e., one's degree of androgynous role orientation) may influence disclosure and friendship to a greater degree than was previously expected.

Additionally, the gender role orientation of this group is unusually distinct, with high correlations between the masculine and feminine role orientations. As such, using this aforementioned composite measure, the current sample proved to be unusually androgynous, with 69% of participants falling above the midpoint of the scale (Mean = 9.52, SD = 2.16). As such, both feminine and masculine gender role orientations produced parallel results for most of the self-disclosure items, despite a confirmatory factor analysis (Hunter & Hamilton, 1988), which showed the distinctive and separate nature of each scale.

Relational Closeness

One of the most compelling findings elucidated in this project was the overwhelming support for the positive correlation between multiple measures of closeness (perceived closeness, interdependence, diversity of activity, and strength of influence) and multiple measures of participants' self-reported, self-disclosive behaviors (amount. breadth, and valence of disclosure). Indeed, of the sixteen bivariate correlations predicted, twelve were found to be statistically significant in the hypothesized direction. In addition, the four multiple regressions looking at the effects of disclosive behaviors on feelings of closeness produced significant [R.sup.2] values, indicating that the amount of association between self-disclosure measures and each of the four dimensions of closeness may be a more useful measure of the relationships between these variables. While there may be other factors besides disclosure alone which lead to feelings of closeness among men. the combined correlational and multiple regression data indicates that the link between various measures of both closeness and self-disclosive behaviors among established friends has been well-supported in this study.

Future research on this link between self-disclosure and closeness needs to be carried out in an experimentally controlled fashion to establish causality. Arguments can be made in either direction; the establishment of trust and rapport may cause closer friends to be more likely to engage in self-disclosure than would less close individuals, but alternatively it is easily argued that individuals who engage in self-disclosure with one another may actually cause feelings of closeness to emerge or be reified by the act of self-disclosure itself. It may be useful to engage in research designed specifically to allow the causal processes to be clearly established.

Future Directions

The present research disentangles some of the interrelationships between masculinity, femininity, friendship behavior, and closeness within established friendships. Unlike much previous work on these concepts, the current study asked men to detail information about specific current friendships, rather than having men simply describe what they believe generalized relationships among men look like. Additionally, the present research had a focus on ensuring that multiple measures and multiple conceptualizations of self-disclosure and various friendship behavior were included in the way that the project was carried out. Not only did individuals report on the amount of self-disclosure, but also the breadth and valence of that self-disclosive behavior. In addition. the current research used multiple conceptualizations of closeness to determine the multi-faceted ways that individuals conceive of what friendship looks like. Instead of simply determining the perceived closeness that individuals imagine exists between them and their friend, the research also looked at the diversity of activity that individuals engaged in, the degree of influence that the relationship exerts, and the interdependence among friends.

In scrutinizing friendship behavior, four key elements must be reviewed in order to gain an adequate picture of the nature of these important, universal relationships. It is important to look at how people conceptualize appropriate forms of friendship in general, how people believe they engage their own friends, and how people actually behave with their friends independent of what they think occurs. This three-pronged approach allows scrutiny of cognition, remembrance, perceived appropriateness, and actual behavior among male friends. Bowman (2004) assessed the perceived appropriateness of friendship behavior. Based on that work, the current study looked at how people believe they engage their own friends (remembrance and cognition). The next step in this line of research, currently under development, intends to look at actual observable behavioral elements of friendship interactions, correlating the degree to which individuals engage in such behavior with other elements of cognitive processes that vary on an individual level.

Self-disclosure has many effects on the nature of relationships. Individuals' self-disclosive behavior can cause discomfort or strengthen relationships, and lead to various cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Widening the scope of the already-broad field of self-disclosure research, further scrutiny of male self-disclosure is necessary to determine the complex interrelationships between men who reveal personal information about the self and the friends, family, and romantic partners who are on the receiving end of such information.

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Jonathan M. Bowman

University of San Diego

Jonathan M. Bowman, Department of Communication Studies, University of San Diego.

The author would like to thank the members of his graduate steering committee at Michigan State University, chaired by Dr. Gwen M. Wittenbaum, who provided comments on earlier drafts of this work. Portions of this project were presented at the International Association of Relationship Researchers convention in 2006.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jonathan M. Bowman, Department of Communication Studies, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego. CA 92110. Electronic mail: bowman@sandiego.edu