A Conceptual Ethic of Generative Fathering.

Dollahite, David C. ; Hawkins, Alan J.

In this paper, the authors propose a "conceptual ethic" of fathering. This framework is presented as an example of a nondeficit perspective of fathering rooted in the proposed ethical obligation for fathers to meet the needs of the next generation. We conceptualize fathering as generative work, rather than as a social role embedded in a changing sociohistorical context. The framework is based on two central ideas: that the human context creates in the next generation that fathers have an ethical responsibility and capability to meet, and that both fathers and children benefit and grow this work. Narrative accounts are used to illustrate the model. We also present findings from research and mention applications that are based on the generative perspective.

Fathering has received increasing scholarly attention in recent years. However, few attempts at systematic theory building have been made in this area. Concepts have been proposed, and empirical relationships between variables have been explored, but only recently have scholars begun to present more formal conceptual frameworks on fathering. Two recent examples of systematic theory building include the model on responsible fathering by Doherty, Kouneski, and Erickson (1998) and the conceptual ethic of generative fathering proposed by Dollahite, Hawkins, and Brotherson (1997). Because theory is important in the entire research process (Lavee & Dollahite, 1991), we hope the conceptual framework presented here will assist scholars who study men and fathering.

This paper will briefly present the major ideas that serve as context and foundation for the generative fathering framework. This article expands on an earlier presentation (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Brotherson, 1997) by further developing and expanding the number of concepts in the framework and by illustrating the conceptual ethic through narrative accounts (stories) from fathers and from people talking about their fathers. This article does not attempt to provide a thorough review of the theory and research related to the generative framework; however, the original presentation of the conceptual ethic does (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Brotherson, 1997).

MAJOR IDEAS IN THE CONCEPTUAL ETHIC OF GENERATIVE FATHERING

Dollahite, Hawkins, and Brotherson (1997) proposed a "conceptual ethic of fathering as generative work" that draws from the developmental conceptual work of Erik Erikson (1950, 1982) and John Snarey (1993). This conceptual ethic was presented as an example of a nondeficit perspective of fathering rooted in the proposed ethical obligation for fathers to meet the needs of the next generation. Erikson (1950, 1982) coined the term generativity to refer to adults' caring for and contributing to the next generation (see Christiansen & Palkovitz, this issue) and saw generativity as a developmental crisis or imperative in which adults try to attain a favorable balance of creativity, productivity, and procreation over stagnation and self-absorption (Snarey, 1997). Snarey (1993) found strong empirical evidence to support the deep and abiding benefits for children that derive from fathers' being generative with their children and grandchildren.

BEYOND DEFICIT PERSPECTIVES

Generative fathering moves beyond what Hawkins and Dollahite (1997) called a "deficit paradigm" of fathers and fatherhood in general and, in particular, the "role-inadequacy perspective" (or RIP) that, in summary, "emphasizes fathers' lack of adaptation to sociohistorical change, their lack of involvement in caring for children, and their lack of interest in changing the status quo" (p. 15). While acknowledging that far too much fathering is deficient or harmful, Hawkins and Dollahite (1997) critique the pervasive role-inadequacy perspective because (a) it overemphasizes fathers' inadequacies and ignores their strengths, (b) it is too focused on rescripting social roles rather than facilitating personal transformation and is therefore nondevelopmental, (c) it ignores the strong desires and motivations most fathers have both to be good fathers and to improve their fathering, (d) it creates barriers to change by maintaining low expectations for fathers and unwittingly supporting maternal gatekeeping, and (e) it restricts the conceptualization of care for children by not challenging an assumption implicitly held by many that the parenting practices typically associated with mothering fully meet the needs of children. Hawkins and Dollahite (1997) call for scholars and practitioners to create "new frameworks that simultaneously emphasize the desires men have to do the work of good fathering, the capabilities they bring to their parenting, and the ethical responsibilities they must assume to care for the next generation" (p. 16).

NEEDS OF THE NEXT GENERATION

The generative framework emphasizes meeting children's deep and abiding, though varied and changing, needs, rather than responding to changing societal expectations. Emphasizing fathers' working to meet children's needs "places fathering on the firm foundation of the needs of the next generation rather than on the shifting sands of societal role expectations, the fragile fault line of adult gender relations, or the engulfing quagmire of expressive individualism" (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Brotherson, 1997, p. 34). The conceptual ethic is grounded in fathers' personal desires and moral responsibility to strive to meet the needs of children that emerge from fundamental and universal challenges of the human condition, challenges such as dependency, scarcity, change, stress, perplexity, isolation, and obligation. Of course, these same challenges apply to fathers as well. Therefore, the conceptual ethic explicitly affirms that good fathering is complex, demanding, and dynamic, and most fathers experience circumstances and barriers that make generative fathering a challenging labor.

A GENERATIVE CONCEPTUAL ETHIC

The generative fathering perspective is a conceptual ethic, that is, a framework intended not primarily to model or describe reality--although it may do that (Borrows, 1996; Brotherson, 1995)--but mainly to suggest what is possible and desirable. Generative fathering is defined as fathering that meets the needs of children by working to create and maintain a developing ethical relationship with them. The generative approach assumes that: (a) fathers are under the obligations of an ethical call from their child(ren) and communities to meet their child(ren)'s needs; (b) the needs of the next generation are preeminent over the needs of adults; (c) fathers have "contextual agency," that is, fathers make choices, within a context of constraints, in relation to the next generation; and (d) fathers can and should connect with and care for their children in meaningful ways.

The assumption that children's needs are preeminent over adult needs does not intend to suggest that children's needs always take precedence over adult needs, but rather that they usually do. Indeed, there are times and circumstances when adults must attend to their needs in order to meet children's needs. Examples of this may include a father's need to maintain a strong relationship with his wife, the need to maintain a supportive relationship with a divorced or never-married mother of his child, the need to attend to occupational demands and interests, or the need to attend to personal and/or emotional growth or healing. The generative ethic would, however, suggest that a generative father attend to his own needs in relation to attending to the needs of his child or children.

FATHERWORK: FATHERING AS GENERATIVE WORK

We use the concept of work to understand and encourage good fathering. Viewing fathering as work may evoke thoughts of drudgery, obligation, oppression, and other unpleasant ideas that are inconsistent with most fathers' ideas of fathering. Thus in this section we discuss the advantages we believe this idea has over some other ways of conceptualizing fathering.

Fatherhood is a useful term to describe a cultural construct of what fathers are expected to do and be. Fathering is a useful term to describe what fathers actually do, say, think, feel, and desire. Fatherwork is our term for the conduct of generative fathering. Fatherwork (like housework and homework) is an activity that involves sustained effort. Fatherwork sounds a bit less "scholarly" than generative fathering, so it may appeal more to practitioners and fathers. We use the terms fatherwork and generative fathering interchangeably.

We conceptualize fathering as generative work, rather than as a social role embedded in a changing sociohistorical context, partly because we agree with Ruddick's (1989) critique of contemporary thinking about fathering, in which she argues that social scientists view fathering as a "role determined by cultural demands [rather] than a kind of work determined by children's needs" (p. 42). We believe fathers' work is best viewed as a calling in which "work constitutes a practical ideal of activity and character that makes a person's work morally inseparable from his or her life" (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swindler, & Tipton, 1985, p. 66). Fatherwork involves one's "life's work" or "mission" or "labor of love" rather than one's occupation. Obviously, fathering involves routine, drudgery, and, sometimes, so-called dirty work. Fathering also includes joy and bliss and fun; thus fatherwork is both hard work and joyous labor. Indeed, research shows that an important way many fathers best connect with their children is through play (Dollahite, Marks, & Olson, 1998, this issue; Snarey, 1993, p. 35). Thus fatherwork involves a blending of Freud's and Erikson's concepts of "love" and "work" that are often considered opposing spheres of commitment.

Using the metaphor of work reconnects the concepts of family and labor for fathers (as has been done in recent theory on mothers, e.g., Ahlander & Bahr, 1995). American society thinks of work mainly as something done separate from family and compensated for with income (Ferree, 1990). Economic work and family work are not as interconnected as they were before the Industrial Revolution. However, it is certainly not true that hard work occurs only in the paid marketplace and not also in family life. Another benefit of conceptualizing fathering as work is that it places fathering in a familiar context for men. In our framework, both paid employment and unpaid domestic labor are encompassed by the concept of generative fathering or fatherwork. Paid employment is a critical arena for fatherwork, and most men and women continue to expect fathers to contribute significantly to their children's material well-being through market work. Levant (1992) argues that traditionally men have been encouraged to emphasize paid employment, and they have done so well. Now that the "breadwinner ethic" has passed, Levant asks: "now ... what do men do?" (p. 393). We suggest they should still work--with and for their child or children in providing for their material well-being and in meeting other needs. Since, for most men, working hard is a central part of their lives (Levant, 1992), thinking of fathering as work--generative work--may help many men see a stronger connection between their personal commitments and obligations to care for their child and the capabilities and interests fathers already have within themselves.

Another advantage of thinking of fathering as work is that more helpful, transformative images are evoked by work when compared to images suggested by fathering as a social role. A social role connotes a set of externally prescribed behaviors that when followed help a group or community function smoothly. This metaphor also is based on changing social norms, rather than on the abiding needs of children. Thinking of fathering as a social role does not invoke strong images of choice, flexibility, creativity, or growth and change. Dollahite, Hawkins, and Brotherson (1997) noted:

 In contrast, thinking about fathering as work can produce different and
 more active images: sweat, daily toil, perseverance, problem solving,
 attention to detail, decision making, creativity, choice, skills training,
 education, competence, improvement, development, adjustment to change,
 commitment, and loyalty. When these images color our conceptions of
 fatherwork it is easier to think about ways Of strengthening fathers,
 valuing the good work they do, raising the standard, and promoting
 improvement. (p. 23)

In the original articulation of the framework, Dollahite, Hawkins, and Brotherson (1997) suggested that the conceptual ethic needed ongoing development and mentioned that additional areas of work would likely be proposed. They also mentioned the need to revise and refine the ideas in the framework. We have made a number of conceptual revisions, refinements, and additions. The following presents the framework as it is now constituted.

THE GENERATIVE FATHERING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1 summarizes the main ideas underlying the generative fathering conceptual framework. The ideas integrate and build on each other, and are organized so as to emphasize those relationships. Careful exploration of Figure 1 gives the reader a snapshot of the major ideas and can be helpful for both scholars interested in studying generative fathering and practitioners interested in applying the ethic of generative fathering in their teaching and therapy.

FIGURE 1. GENERATIVE FATHERING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

 A B
 Challenges Attendant Needs of
 of the Human the Next Generation
 Condition

1 DEPENDENCY SECURITY
 Vulnerability and
 and CONTINUITY
 Uncertainty
 (infancy)

2 SCARCITY RESOURCES
 Necessities and
 and OPPORTUNITIES
 Aspirations
 (early childhood)

3 CHANGE ATTENTION
 Development and
 and ACCOMMODATION
 Transformation
 (play age)

4 STRESS RELAXATION
 Tension and
 and CAPABILITIES
 Demands
 (school age)

5 PERPLEXITY ENCOURAGEMENT
 Apprehension and
 and MEANING
 Confusion
 (adolescence)

6 ISOLATION INTIMACY
 Aloneness and
 and EMPATHY
 Misunderstanding
 (young adulthood)

7 OBLIGATION WISDOM
 Complexities and
 and SUPPORT
 Burdens
 (adulthood)

 C D
 Types of Generative Desired Results
 Work--Fathers' Capabilities of Generative
 and Responsibilities Fathering

1 ETHICAL WORK INVOLVED
 Commit--pledge to ensure Fathers
 child's well-being SECURE
 Continue--be an enduring Children
 presence in child's life

2 STEWARDSHIP WORK RESPONSIBLE
 Consecrate--dedicate Fathers
 material resources to child CONFIDENT
 Create--provide possibilities Children
 for child to achieve

3 DEVELOPMENT WORK RESPONSIVE
 Care--respond to child's Fathers
 needs and wants PURPOSEFUL
 Change--adapt in response Children
 to child's needs

4 RECREATION WORK PLAYFUL
 Cooperate--relax and play Fathers
 together on child's level JOYFUL
 Challenge--extend child's Children
 skills & coping abilities

5 SPIRITUAL WORK FAITHFUL
 Confirm--affirm belief Fathers
 and confidence in child PEACEFUL
 Counsel--guide, teach, Children
 advise, impart meaning

6 RELATIONAL WORK LOVING
 Commune--share love, Fathers
 thoughts, feelings with child CARING
 Comfort--express empathy Children
 and understanding to child

7 MENTORING WORK GENERATIVE
 Consult--impart insights Fathers
 and suggestions when asked GENERATIVE
 Contribute--sustain Children
 and support generative work

The framework is based on two central ideas: that the human context creates needs in the next generation that fathers have the ethical responsibility and capability to meet, and that both fathers and children benefit and grow from this work. Thus four types of linked concepts presented in the conceptual ethic are found in the four columns labeled (a) challenges of the human condition, (b) attendant needs of the next generation, (c) types of generative work--father's capabilities and responsibilities, and (d) desired results of generative fathering for fathers and children.

All the human challenges, attendant needs, types of generative work, and desired results of generative work are present at all stages of the life cycle. (The model does include some broad developmental ages, but by no means is the model simply an age-oriented stage model.) Thus all these issues are always present, but it is believed that different challenges, needs, and types of work take center stage at different times in the child's and father's development. And the type of dependency, scarcity, change, stress, perplexity, isolation, and obligation people experience changes across time and differs across contexts. Likewise, the nature and intensity of human needs varies across time, and because a need is met or a challenge overcome at one point in time does not mean it ceases to be an issue or potential issue. Our basic human challenges and needs seem to be with us always to some extent or at least can surface quickly. And, of course, because of differing temperament, life situations, experiences, parenting styles, and decisions, some face extreme challenges or have extremely strong needs in comparison to others. Although the framework assumes that all people experience these challenges and have these needs, there is great variation in the mix of challenges and needs. Generative fathering is working to meet the needs of the next generation, and those needs are both universal in the aggregate and highly personalized. Thus generative fathering must be tailored to situations, contexts, developmental stages, persons, types of interests and abilities of father and child, and many other factors, as well. The concepts in the model are intended to be broad enough to include all these diversities.

The rest of the paper articulates the main concepts in the framework and illustrates the major ideas through narrative accounts about father-child relationships and interactions taken from the FatherWork Web site (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Associates, 1998). Stories were gathered from various sources, including interviews with fathers from students' writing about their fathers, stories sent in to E. Jeffrey Hill's DAD/S Newsletter, and stories submitted to FatherWork. Permission was obtained to use the stories on the Web site and in other publications.

DEPENDENCY AND ETHICAL WORK

The first challenge of the human condition is dependency, which includes two dimensions: vulnerability and uncertainty. While always a challenge of the human condition, dependency and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during infancy (when Erikson's trust versus mistrust crisis occurs). Of course, dependency also becomes an issue at times of transition, crisis, loss, insecurity, and pain throughout the life span. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from dependency include security and continuity. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called ethical work. Ethical work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to commit (to pledge to ensure the child's well-being) and to continue (to be an enduring presence in the child's life). It is hoped that ethical work will result in involved fathers and secure children. Ethical work thus becomes the foundation and sine qua non of generative fathering. Research shows that if a strong commitment to the child and early paternal involvement with that child does not occur, the child is at significant risk for meaningful long-term involvement with the father (Doherty et al., 1998).

ETHICAL WORK NARRATIVES

Ethical work, or being committed to and involved with one's children, is always important (and absolutely critical in infancy and early childhood), but takes on special meaning when children are old enough to notice a father's involvement, as the following narratives illustrate. This first father describes how he decided to be at home more often because of his daughter: he is an example of commitment to involvement.

 I drove a truck for a while, and I think that has contributed to our being
 distant. She felt like she didn't have a daddy. I came home and told her to
 clean something up, and she said, "You can't tell me what to do. You're not
 my daddy." That ripped me apart. I think it was more of a twist and a
 little gouge on her part; I don't think it was really meant, but it hurt. I
 stopped driving a truck really fast and brought myself back home. She was
 more or less saying, "You should be home."

Another father tells of a time he chose involvement, even though it was painful.

 One of the kids was out trying to ride a bicycle, and I came home [from
 work because of illness]. One of the kids asked me to come out and help her
 learn to ride or watch them, and I went out there in pain. I thought, "I
 don't know why I'm doing this," but something forced me to go out and
 suffer some more. She learned to ride the bike that day.... You do learn
 things almost instantaneously when they do happen, and if you miss that
 moment then you've missed the moment. There is nothing else you can say....
 You have to do them or you miss them forever, and I mean forever.... I
 don't want those moments to pass with me and my children.

The following story also illustrates a painful lesson a father learned and his commitment to be more involved in a child's important activities:

 Last month I felt in my gut what happens when you don't put family first.
 My son Steven recently had his first-ever swim meet. He loves to compete
 and show off for Dad. I know he was counting on me to be there. As the hour
 approached, I had a little last-minute research request at work, and I
 opted to complete the request before I left. As a result, I ended up
 leaving just a few minutes later than I had planned. A wind storm made the
 commute home just a little longer than usual, and I arrived just in time to
 see Steven getting out of the water after his very first race. I missed it!
 It is an experience that can never be recreated! When he's an Olympic
 swimmer, I'll never be able to say I saw his first competitive race. And I
 missed it so I could finish an unimportant task at work. The really ironic
 thing is that the next day we ended up not even needing the research I had
 done. I learned very clearly that my place at that moment in time was at
 the pool with my son, not at the office with my computer! I vowed not to
 miss other important firsts in my son's life.

Secure children are better prepared to deal successfully with the next challenge of the human condition we discuss--scarcity.

SCARCITY AND STEWARDSHIP WORK

The second challenge of the human condition is scarcity, which includes two dimensions: necessities and aspirations. Necessities include the material needs of life, and aspirations encompass the desire for more personal achievement and the need to learn to set and accomplish goals. While always a challenge of the human condition, scarcity and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during early childhood (when Erikson's autonomy versus shame/doubt crisis occurs). The attendant needs of the next generation arising from scarcity include resources and opportunities. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called stewardship work. Stewardship work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to consecrate (to dedicate material resources to the child) and to create (to provide possibilities for the child to achieve). It is hoped that stewardship work will result in responsible fathers and confident children who assume they will continue to have sufficient resources to meet their needs and opportunities to achieve their aspirations. If fathers do not adequately provide for the needs and wants of their children, the result is often poverty and discouragement for the child.

STEWARDSHIP WORK NARRATIVES

Dedication and creativity are necessary elements in stewardship work. The fathers in the following two stories demonstrate both their dedication and creativity:

 In an earlier semester, I had to walk to the school every morning.... It
 was usually about a 45-minute walk.... In the wintertime [in China], very
 early in the morning, my father would always walk me to school and make
 sure that I was okay on the road.... Usually we left before it was light in
 order to arrive on time. We had to carry a lot of our rice and other things
 to the school so that we had something to eat. My father would never let me
 carry those things; he would always carry them for me. It was very cold,
 and there was usually a strong wind. We didn't have money to buy a new hat
 for me, so he would put his hat, which he had from years ago, on my head.
 It was too big for my head, but it kept my head warm. He would use a cold
 towel--the towel he'd washed his face with the previous night. There was no
 heat in the house, of course, unlike America, and so in the morning that
 towel was frozen solid. But he would wrap that towel around his ears
 because of the wind in the winter. I will never forget that.... When you
 are nurtured and cared for as a child, you are the one to transfer that
 love to the next generation.

 When I was a young girl, my family did not have much money. My father
 worked hard to get us what we needed, but with four small children and a
 small income, we did not have many extras. One Christmas when I was about
 eight or nine, I really wanted a play stove. My parents told me that Santa
 tried hard to get every little girl all that she wanted, but it didn't
 always work out. I remember thinking I really wanted that stove, but even
 if Santa could bring me some dishes or play food it would be all right. On
 Christmas morning, there was a big white stove under the tree for me, and
 some dishes! I was so excited. It had turning dials and everything. I'd
 never seen a stove so neat--I was so lucky! In later years I came to know
 that my Dad had built the stove, using a piece of plywood and bottle caps
 for dials. He had painted four black burners on top and even made an oven
 with two shelves inside. He spent very little money and probably not much
 time, but to me it meant more than he'll know. My stove was the best and
 most original on the block, and the one made with the most love.

Stewardship work includes providing growth opportunities for your child. The following story illustrates relationship work and stewardship work, since the father helps his child learn a skill beginning at an early age.

 Probably one of the most enjoyable experiences I had with Tim was when I
 built my mother-in-law's home, which is just across the street. He was only
 two or two-and-a-half at the time, and he had to be there with me the whole
 time. It wasn't enough for him to be there; he had to be doing the same
 thing that I was doing. I tried to appease him by getting him his own
 tools, but I didn't want him to get hurt, so I got him the plastic
 tools.... No, it didn't work, so I had to go and get him smaller, but real,
 tools. If I was pounding a nail, he had to pound a nail. Tim had some
 painful lessons! He had to learn that when you bring the hammer up, you
 don't bring it up and hit your head before you take it back down. But at
 two-and-a-half Tim could pound a sixteen-penny nail. I had to start it for
 him, but he'd sit there and do his little taps. It might have taken him
 half an hour, but he'd stay right there until he got that nail down. To
 this day, Tim likes to work. As long as he can work with Dad.

Secure and confident children are better prepared to deal successfully with the next challenge of the human condition we discuss--change.

CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT WORK

The third challenge of the human condition is change, which includes two dimensions: development (gradual normative change) and transformation (sudden and/or dramatic change). While always a challenge of the human condition, change and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during the play age (Erikson's initiative versus guilt crisis), when children are forming basic beliefs about whether or not they have the ability to handle and initiate changes in their environment. Change also becomes important during adolescence. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from change include attention and accommodation. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called development work. Development work consists of the fathers' ability and responsibility to care (to respond to their children's needs and wants) and to change (to adapt in response to their children's needs). It is hoped that development work will result in responsive fathers and purposeful children who believe they will be able to continue to receive attention and initiate desired changes in their world.

DEVELOPMENT WORK NARRATIVES

This next father illustrates being aware of, sensitive to, and responding with care to a child's immediate needs:

 I feel like I know Trina. I sense Trina, so that I know when she's having a
 problem and is trying to get through it on her own. I can sense when I need
 to delve into that and when I need to back off and let her handle it.... In
 August we were at church, and she was coming down the hall and going to
 Sunday School.... I looked at her and knew that something was wrong. I
 said, "Trina, come here. What's wrong?" "Oh, nothing," she said. I
 repeated, "Trina, what's wrong?" And then the tears. It had to do with one
 of those kid things, her friends not wanting to talk to her, doing this and
 that. We walked around the chapel and talked about it. I said, "That
 doesn't mean it's your problem. You've got to remember that kids are mean
 to each other sometimes." I helped her put it in perspective. We walked
 around a little bit more until she could get herself together, then she
 went back to class and was fine.

Adjusting to the growing demands for independence that teenagers express can be a real challenge for fathers. This next father tells of his experience when his 16-year-old daughter decided it was time to leave home:

 Parenting adolescents has been a challenge for me, but that hardly makes me
 unique. A couple of years ago, my daughter Kathy, our oldest child, began
 chafing against parental monitoring and guidance. Nothing too unusual here.
 She was 15. Over time we gave her more and more "slack," eventually getting
 down to a couple of basic rules: let us know where you are and who you are
 with, let us know when we can expect you back, call if you're going to be
 late, and "be good." We thought these were very minimal and reasonable
 rules, but it wasn't enough for her; she needed to be on her own,
 completely unfettered by parental ties. We asked her if she thought other
 parents were more lenient than hers. She said all the parents she knew were
 stricter, but she still needed to have her freedom. She just had to be on
 her own. The summer after her sophomore year in high school, she moved out
 and into a home with an adult friend and her husband (they have no
 children). We didn't approve, but we could see that saying no would really
 sour our relationship with her. It was hard to say good-bye, even though
 she still lives close; we had thought we would have more time with her.
 It's been especially hard on her mother, who grew up in much more
 challenging circumstances and didn't get much parenting or have many of the
 advantages Kathy enjoys. I've learned first-hand about the process of
 adolescent autonomy, parental separation, and an emptying nest. I've
 learned that the timing of this process isn't necessarily predictable and
 can he sooner than you think, leaving you unprepared.... I guess I've
 learned that children grow up on different timetables and with different
 needs and desires. Parents need to respect them. Although we wish we had
 more time with her, we now realize that parents shouldn't assume a fixed
 amount of time (18 years) to rear their children before launching. We hope
 letting her go will preserve a good relationship so that she will still
 come to us, physically and emotionally, in the future.

This story illustrates well both the flexibility and responsiveness that development work involves. Secure, confident, and purposeful children are better prepared to deal successfully with the next challenge of the human condition we discuss--stress.

STRESS AND RECREATION WORK

The fourth challenge of the human condition is stress, which includes two dimensions: tension and demands. While always a challenge of the human condition, stress and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during school age (Erikson's industry versus inferiority crisis), when children deal with the tensions and demands of school, peer relations, and familial dynamics. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from stress include relaxation and capabilities. The type of! generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called recreation work. Recreation work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to cooperate (to relax and play together on the child's level) and to challenge (to extend the child's skills and coping abilities). It is hoped that recreation work will result in playful fathers and joyful children who enjoy life and know how to relieve stress through recreation and who have been challenged to develop competencies that will help them face the demands of life.

Many may question the logic of the seeming oxymoron "recreation work." They may argue that working at play may not relieve stress and that, for many people, linking play with work so closely takes the fun out of recreation. Those points are valid. However, remember that in the generative fathering ethic, work, as we define it, does not have the connotations often associated with work as many define it, as negatively charged (i.e., drudgery, oppression, boredom), but rather includes the sense of calling, purpose, sustained effort, and joy. And meaningful recreation (rejuvenation, renewal, and relaxation) is not always or necessarily "fun" in the sense of being light and amusing.

Even so, sustaining appropriate, enjoyable, affordable, safe, and challenging recreational activities for a child is hard work. For many people, fun does not necessarily come naturally or easily, and they have to work at taking time away from other types of work or trying to bring humor and play into their parenting. Many fathers (and mothers) need to work at winding down from their serious and stressful jobs to have fun with their children (Hochschild, 1997). Some fathers have to work at resisting the urge to overcorrect while teaching a child a game or work at avoiding being sarcastic or otherwise insensitive in their humor. Others have to work at getting down to the child's level and playing what she or he wants to play. Some must work to "lighten up" when they are trying to teach beliefs and behaviors very important to the father. Sustaining an appropriately playful relationship with children of certain ages or with children with certain temperaments may require real effort. Most people find that many kinds of child-desired vacations are as much work as fun for the parents, yet they are still recreational and important in building strong family ties. Many fathers find it helpful to combine fun with working around the house and yard with their children and so are doing recreation work. Another part of recreation work is playfully challenging one's child in ways that can teach new competencies.

RECREATION WORK NARRATIVES

The next stories illustrate how playful fathers bring joy to their children:

 I was building paper airplanes for my son Jake and some little cousins, and
 my older kids got to talking about the paper planes we used to make and
 fly. Mom happened to be gone to a women's church meeting, so we decided to
 have some fun. We had been watching a Star Wars movie, and that inspired us
 to make paper bag helmets with cellophane windows as eye shields. Then we
 put duct tape on our thumbs and shot rubber bands at each other for hours.
 We had a ball! We shot about a thousand rubber bands all over the house.
 [My wife] was mad at us, but we had a lot of fun. Anyway, we decided we'd
 do it again this week when Mom is away. We now have a ton of rubber bands
 stockpiled because of all the paper routes we do. It should be fun. I need
 to find the clear cellophane, and we'll be in business. I think this
 "mother of all battles" will be one of those memories that my kids will
 always remember.

 One day I was sitting in the living room with my two-year-old, Spencer,
 reading a book to him. I was about to get up and leave for a church
 meeting, when my daughters, Camilla (7) and Kathryn (5), along with two of
 their little friends, came running in and asked if they could go and find
 some boys to come play with them. When I asked what they wanted to play,
 Camilla said, "Oh, we want to have a dance downstairs." I couldn't pass up
 a chance to have a dance with my daughters, so I said, "Well, could Spencer
 and I be the boys?" They all squealed with delight at that suggestion and
 grabbed us by the hands to lead us downstairs. The playroom was all cleaned
 up (an unusual site) and there was a table with plastic refreshments and
 several plastic musical instruments. So the two neighbor girls "played" the
 instruments, and Spencer and I danced with Camilla and Kathryn. Then we
 switched and danced with the neighbor kids while Camilla and Kathryn
 played. After we had danced for a while, we sat on the floor in a circle
 and enjoyed the "refreshments." Then we danced some more, this time with
 Spencer being much more enthusiastically involved. It was one of those
 times that are hard to plan, but nice to have as often as possible. I don't
 know if my daughters will remember that day, but I know I'll never forget
 it.

Secure, confident, purposeful, and joyful children are better prepared to deal successfully with the next challenge of the human condition we discuss--perplexity.

PERPLEXITY AND SPIRITUAL WORK

The fifth challenge of the human condition is perplexity, which includes two dimensions: apprehension and confusion. While always a challenge of the human condition, perplexity and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during adolescence (Erikson's identity versus confusion crisis), when teenagers struggle with a variety of types of confusion (e.g., roles, relationships, directions, values, beliefs, boundaries). In fact, part of the reason there is such perplexity for adolescents is that adolescence is a time when human challenges and needs seem to intensify within the teen, and there is great apprehension and confusion in making the transition from child to adult. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from perplexity include encouragement and guidance. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called spiritual work. Spiritual work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to confirm (to affirm his belief and confidence in the child) and to counsel (to guide, teach, advise, and inspire the child). The use of the term spiritual work here does not necessarily imply religious belief or practice. It does suggest a strong, deep, abiding, nurturing, and guiding connection between father and child in ways that the child can obtain meaning and direction about critical issues and questions and come to experience some degree of peace about life and the future. Of course, religious beliefs and practices often can be helpful in facilitating generative spiritual work (Dollahite, Slife, & Hawkins, 1998). It is hoped that spiritual work will result in faithful fathers and peaceful children.

SPIRITUAL WORK NARRATIVES

The following story tells of a father confirming his love for and confidence in his adult daughter, and how much this conveyance meant to her:

 The day was filled with excitement as I put on my cap and gown in
 preparation for my graduation from college with my associate's degree. In
 all the excitement, my parents gave me a card that I did not open for some
 time. I sat down on the edge of the stage and opened the card while my
 parents were in their own world off to the side. From the moment I read the
 words "`Dear Heather," my eyes began swelling with tears. I was filled with
 total emotion as I read "Dear Heather, I know we don't talk much.
 Communication between you and your mother seems to be better than between
 you and me. However, I want you to know how extremely proud of you that I
 really am. The example you set for your brothers and sisters is very
 important to me, but more than that, the standards you have set for
 yourself place you in a class by yourself. I know you will succeed in
 anything you do; you've proven that many times. You have chosen well: your
 schools, your course of study, your work, and of course your mate. Be proud
 of who you are, be strong in what you do, be faithful to your convictions.
 You are my daughter, I love you very much--Dad." To many people this would
 be a normal letter that contains words heard by their fathers many times.
 But to me, the words are like gold, very rare and precious. My father has
 never expressed his feelings to me in such a manner. Tears just streamed
 down my face when I read the words. I wanted to go up and hug my dad to let
 him know how much they meant, but I was restrained. To this day I do not
 know why, but this experience has been held dear to me, and I have
 cherished this card with all my heart.

This story illustrates a father's gentle counsel and teaching to a teenage daughter:

 He taught me something I will never forget. I was thirteen at the time, and
 basically thought I was "all that." My dad was my pal and cool to hang
 with. I always knew he was a good guy with a good heart, but it wasn't
 until my phone conversation with Alisa that I learned how much he cared
 about people. I had just hung up the phone after telling Alisa I couldn't
 help her with her algebra that afternoon. Dad wanted to know why I had said
 no to her. I told him I didn't want to waste my afternoon helping her with
 algebra when I could spend the time with my other girlfriends at the mall.
 I also told him that it was no big deal, anyway, because we didn't have a
 test for another two weeks. My dad looked disappointed. I can't bear for
 him to be disappointed in me for any reason, so I asked what the problem
 was. He hesitated and then taught me something I will never forget. He sat
 me down and explained to me the importance of being nice to people. I
 thought it was an unnecessary conversation at first, because I was going to
 help Alisa with math, just not today. But the more I listened and thought
 of my dad's words, the more I began to see why he is someone I admire so
 much. He explained to me that it's easy to be nice to people when it's
 convenient, but it's when it isn't convenient that one's true colors show.
 My dad has a way of teaching me things that penetrate my heart and motivate
 me to follow his counsel. Even though we aren't affiliated with any
 particular religion, I think I have learned more from my dad than any other
 person about the importance of being nice to others. He is the nicest man I
 know--not just to me, but to everyone.

Secure, confident, purposeful, joyful, and peaceful children are better prepared to deal successfully with the next challenge of the human condition we discuss--isolation.

ISOLATION AND RELATIONAL WORK

The sixth challenge of the human condition is isolation, which includes two dimensions: aloneness (social isolation--"I'm alone") and misunderstanding (emotional/intellectual isolation--"no one understands me"). While always a challenge of the human condition, isolation and its attendant needs are center stage as crucial developmental issues during young adulthood (Erikson's intimacy versus isolation crisis), when young adults make choices about long-term relationships. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from isolation include intimacy and empathy. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called relational work. Relational work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to commune (to share love, thoughts, and feelings with the child) and to comfort (to express empathy and understanding with the child). It is hoped that relational work will result in loving fathers and caring children. Relationship work involves not only maintaining loving relationship with the child but also facilitating the child's relationships with other family and community members, especially the child's mother, siblings, and grandparents.

RELATIONAL WORK NARRATIVES

This story illustrates a father and child connecting in meaningful ways while working together:

 When my father came home from work at approximately six every evening, we
 thought he would want to quit for the evening, but he would always round us
 up to go pick cantaloupe. When we picked melons with Dad, he would carry
 the bags for the melons while we would hunt for the ripe melons. I would
 get so excited when I found a ripe melon on the vine that I would jump up
 and down, pick it, and throw it to Dad. Dad would always thank us and let
 us know that what we did was appreciated. Probably the best thing that Dad
 did while we were in the melon patch was to talk with us. He would ask us
 how our day had been and what we had accomplished. I always felt when we
 were in the melon patch I could tell Dad anything. I had more
 heart-to-heart talks with my father while in the melon patch than at any
 other time I can remember.

Love and humor are combined to reinforce a good relationship between a teenage daughter and her father in this next story:

 One day my Dad was working on the car I usually drove. He came inside
 wearing his work overalls, and I asked him how it was going. He said it was
 going fine, but he had to go to the store and get something to finish up. I
 said, "You're not going to the store looking like that ... how
 embarrassing! You look like a geek. Don't tell anyone you're my dad." I was
 kind of joking, but I did think it would be embarrassing if he ran into
 someone I knew. A few minutes later he came out of his room with homemade
 signs taped to his front and back that said, "I'm a geek" and "I'm
 Kimberlie's Dad." He got in the car and was leaving, and I was laughing. I
 was a little embarrassed, but it also made me realize how dumb it was to
 worry about my friends knowing he was my dad, even when he looked like a
 geek. I'm glad I could have a good, fun relationship with my dad.

Secure, confident, purposeful, joyful, peaceful, and caring children are usually better prepared to deal successfully with the final challenge of the human condition we discuss--obligation.

OBLIGATION AND MENTORING WORK

The seventh challenge of the human condition is obligation, which includes two dimensions: complexities and burdens. While always a challenge of the human condition, obligation and its attendant needs play a minor role in childhood, emerge as a real issue in adolescence, play a major role in young adulthood, and take center stage as crucial developmental issues during middle adulthood (when Erikson's generativity versus self-absorption crisis occurs). This life span approach to fathering recognizes that most fathers will have twice as many years with an adult child as with a young child and emphasizes the important work many fathers do to support and encourage their adult children in their own generative work. The attendant needs of the next generation arising from obligation include wisdom and support. The type of generative work needed from fathers to meet these needs is called mentoring work. Mentoring work consists of the father's ability and responsibility to consult (to impart ideas and stories when asked) and to contribute (sustain and support generative work of one's children). Mentoring work, it is hoped, will result in generative fathers and generative children.

MENTORING WORK NARRATIVES

The following story is about a father who respects his son's opinions. By listening and not passing judgment, he allows his son to make mistakes and to learn and grow on his own:

 One of the best parts of our relationship is that for as long as I can
 remember, my dad has always treated me like an equal to him. He has always
 valued my opinions and my input on everything imaginable. As I get older
 and more educated, my opinions are beginning to become more defined. This
 has recently led to some heated debates between me and my dad. Luckily, we
 have a solid relationship that isn't affected negatively because of some
 conflicts we have. The time that I recall the most as an example of our
 relationship was when I came home for Thanksgiving from my first semester
 of college. I thought I knew it all, and I began to argue with my dad about
 something to do with politics. I was being rude and arrogant in my
 argument. My dad could only sit and listen to my overnight political thesis
 on how I was the only one who really knew what was going on in the world.
 My dad didn't laugh in my face, but rather listened to me and took it in,
 then let it slide. Some time after that, my dad and I both laughed about
 it. This showed me that for the good or bad, my father was going to be
 there to listen and treat me with respect.

The next story tells of a father's meaningful and memorable counsel to an adult son about marriage:

 I was 34. We had gone home for Christmas, I think, and it might have been
 the first time that he had met my wife. I remember what he said. He said,
 "You treat her good, because that is the woman you need." He told me,
 because we were thinking about moving back to Kansas City, "There is
 nothing for you here. Absolutely nothing." It was interesting because it
 was like he was having a father-and-son talk with me. I was thinking that I
 was 34 and married, and this was almost the birds-and-the-bees type of
 thing. That was really touching.

Although much mentoring work occurs with adult children, fathers can begin this process of teaching children to deal with life obligations before their children reach adulthood. The following story is about a father who prepares his daughter to handle complex problems in life, such as racism:

 The most painful experience I've had with Trina was when she was about
 three or four. We were living in a neighborhood where kids would tell her
 that they could not play with her because she did not have a white face.
 They would spit on her even though I was standing there, because she was
 black.... That hurt. It had nothing directly to do with her, but it hurt.
 It's painful for me because I thought I had marched, been spit on, kicked,
 beat up, jailed, called all kinds of names in the 1960s and through the
 civil rights movement so that this should not be happening.... If it was
 said to me, that would be fine, but not to my kids, not to my wife. I
 learned that I had to prepare my kids to deal with all kinds of people no
 matter where they are. Also, to understand that it's not their problem and
 they shouldn't take the other person's problem, who is bigoted or
 narrow-minded, away from them and put it on themselves.

Ideally, a father's mentoring work with his adult children provides an example of generativity and maintains a meaningful relationship of care that allows children to continue to receive support and assistance from their fathers throughout the fathers' lives.

SOME THOUGHTS ON THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In this section we discuss some of the features of the conceptual ethic and provide a summary of the main points. In each of the seven pairs of capabilities and responsibilities, the first concept (e.g., commit, consecrate, care, cooperate, confirm, commune, consult) deals with meeting children where they are or connecting with them, while the second concept in each pair (e.g., continue, create, change, challenge, counsel, comfort, contribute) deals more with extending one's self or one's child, or challenging. (The capabilities and responsibilities of generative fathering all start with the same letter to emphasize their centrality and as a mnemonic device to aid practitioners and family members.) Both connecting and challenging are thus proposed as important activities for each area of work. Some fathers are better at connecting and others at challenging, but the conceptual ethic suggests that both are important--much like affiliation and autonomy are both essential--and further suggests that in most cases, it is better to connect and then to challenge.

This framework should be considered a tightly connected foundation for generative fathering and is therefore best viewed not as a linear, hierarchical model. These seven sets of concepts do not exhaust all the challenges, needs, types of generative work, capabilities, responsibilities, and desired results of good fathering that are important for fathers and children. However, we believe that these seven are critical, and together they form a coherent set of ideas that suggest many important areas to address in research and practice with fathers. Thus the seven rows in the framework consist of a set of concepts, consistent with Erikson's developmental model, though not completely derived from it, that provide a "center stage" developmental model in which the order is partly temporal and partly ontological.

In summary, some of the major assumptions of the generative perspective include the following:

 1. Fathers have the ability and the responsibility to choose to be involved
 and responsible fathers, and most fathers have strong desires to be good
 fathers.

 2. Good fathering emphasizes meeting the needs of the next generation more
 than responding to societal expectations or changing social roles; thus
 generative fathering is an ethical response to the needs of the next
 generation.

 3. Good fathering is hard work, and it is one of the most important kinds
 of work men do.

 4. Fathers' needs and children's needs often correspond, and generative
 fathering is consistent with healthy men's development.

 5. The needs of the next generation are grounded in the challenges and
 opportunities of the human and family conditions.

 6. Men bring varied abilities, interests, and strengths to their fathering
 and grow into their fathering.

 7. Fathering (like all human activity) takes place in a context of
 constraints, barriers, and challenges. (Adapted from Dollahite, Morris, &
 Hawkins, 1997)

SUPPORT FOR EMPIRICAL AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE GENERATIVE FRAMEWORK

Two indications of the value of a conceptual framework in the social sciences are its ability to generate meaningful research and the extent to which it can inform useful applications for helping professionals (Lavee & Dollahite, 1991). This section briefly describes some research and applications flowing from a generative perspective.

EMPIRICAL SUPPORT FOR A GENERATIVE FRAMEWORK

Some initial empirical research using narrative methods has provided support for the validity of the major ideas of the conceptual ethic of fathering as generative work. Borrows (1996) used the framework as the conceptual basis for a qualitative, narrative study of fourteen Canadian Chippewa (Ojibway) fathers who had alcoholic fathers and were transitional characters, or generational buffers, in their own fathering. She found support for the major concepts for the sample in that context and also suggested how the framework could be adapted for Native North American fathers. Brotherson (1995) and Brotherson and Dollahite (1997) used a narrative approach to explore the validity of the framework with Latter-day Saint (Mormon) fathers of children with special needs and found support for its use with this group of fathers. Dollahite, Marks, and Olson (1998, this issue) connected concepts from the conceptual ethic with findings from research exploring the relationship between religious belief and practice and generative fathering in fathers of children with special needs.

Although we believe that narrative methods may be most effective in exploring generative fathering (Dollahite et al., 1996), we have also developed a tool to measure generative fathering that can be subjected to quantitative analyses called the Generative Involvement in Fathering Scales (GIFS). As yet, no published research has been conducted with this new scale, but we include it here as an example of how concepts from the conceptual ethic may be operationalized (see Appendix A).

EDUCATIONAL AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE GENERATIVE FRAMEWORK

We also hope that the conceptual ethic of fathering as generative work will be useful in educational and clinical settings with fathers. Palm (1997) incorporated the four concepts of generative fathering work into a framework of goals for parent and family education with fathers. Dollahite, Hawkins, and Brotherson (1996) demonstrated how the framework could be used in family life education using a narrative approach to illustrate concepts. Dollahite, Morris, and Hawkins (1997) proposed various activities and questions for college and university educators to use to incorporate concepts of generative fathering into courses. Dollahite, Hawkins, and Associates (1998) have used the framework as the basis for a narrative-oriented family life education Web site. Evaluative feedback from users of the site and some initial quantitative findings from module evaluation surveys suggest that users find the ideas and stories helpful (Hawkins, Barclay, & Dollahite, 1998). Dienhart and Dollahite (1997) have suggested that the conceptual ethic of fathering as generative work has important implications for therapeutic work with fathers, and they present an approach to therapy that combines the ideas of generative fathering with narrative therapy to form what they call "generative narrative therapy." Dollahite, Slife, and Hawkins (1998) have used the major concepts of a generative approach to develop the concepts of family generativity and an approach to intergenerational clinical work with families called generative counseling.

CONCLUSION

The framework we have proposed is grounded in two foundational concepts--universal challenges of the human condition and the needs of the next generation that are associated with those challenges. The framework has a sense of high ethical ideals that calls for the best care fathers can give to their children, while at the same time proposing that men are capable of meeting these challenges. We believe most fathers are up to this challenge. The life-span nature of the framework allows and encourages exploration of the different and important ways fathers can and do contribute to their children's well-being across decades and through changes in their needs and challenges. Thus the framework moves beyond deficit perspectives that suggest that men are not very good fathers and not of much use to their children.

The model attempts to balance attention to conceptual clarity with practical utility in the hope that both scholars and practitioners would derive some benefit from the framework. Using the concept of fathering as generative work rather than the nearly reified concept of fatherhood as a changing social role (that contemporary men do not enact well) has the potential to help move scholars and practitioners beyond passive, deficit perspectives that tend to lead to empirical questions, educational programs, and clinical interventions that may not be respectful of most father's actual motivations, capabilities, and experiences.

The framework includes two important concepts in the fathering literature: father involvement (though not limited to temporal involvement) and father responsibility; it puts them into a broader context and provides additional important issues to address in relation to good fathering. Our use of both theoretical constructs and narrative accounts furthers the connection between theory and story begun in our earlier work (Dollahite, Hawkins, & Brotherson, 1996). Because of its degree of specificity, coherence, and organization, we hope the framework will be helpful in both research and application.

REFERENCES

Ahlander, N. R., & Bahr, K. S. (1995). Beyond drudgery, power, and equity: Toward an expanded discourse on the moral dimensions of housework in families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 54-68.

Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R. Sullivan, W. M., Swindler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Borrows, J. (1996). Generative fathering among the Canadian Chippewa: Narrative accounts of the circle of life. Unpublished master's thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

Brotherson, S. E. (1995). Using fathers' narrative accounts to refine a conceptual model of generative fathering. Unpublished master's thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

Brotherson, S. E., & Dollahite, D. C. (1997). Generative ingenuity in fatherwork with young children with special needs. In A. J. Hawkins & D. C. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. 89-104). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Christiansen, S. L., & Palkovitz, R. (1998). Exploring Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: Generativity and its relationship to paternal identity, intimacy, and involvement in child care. The Journal of Men's Studies, 7, 133-156.

Dienhart, A., & Dollahite, D. C. (1997). A generative narrative approach to clinical work with fathers. In A. J. Hawkins & D. C. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. 183-199). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277-292.

Dollahite, D. C., Marks, L. D., Olson, M. M. (1998). Faithful fathering in trying times: Religious beliefs and practices of Latter-day Saint fathers of children with special needs. The Journal of Men's Studies, 7, 71-93.

Dollahite, D. C., Hawkins, A. J., & Brotherson, S. E. (1997). Fatherwork: A conceptual ethic of fathering as generative work. In A. J. Hawkins & D. C. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. 17-35). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dollahite, D. C., Hawkins, A. J., & Associates (1998). FatherWork: Stories and Ideas to Encourage Generative Fathering (http://fatherwork.byu.edu).

Dollahite, D. C., Morris, S. M., & Hawkins A. J. (1997). Questions and activities for teaching about generative fathering in university courses. In A. J. Hawkins & D. C. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. 228-241). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Dollahite, D. C., Hawkins, A. J., & Brotherson, S. E. (1996). Narrative accounts, generative fathering, and family life education. Marriage and Family Review, 24, 349-368.

Dollahite, D. C., Slife, B. D., & Hawkins, A. J. (1998). Family generativity and generative counseling: Helping families keep faith with the next generation. In D. P. McAdams & E. de St. Aubin (Eds.), Generativity and adult development: How and why we care for the next generation (pp. 449-481). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton.

Ferree, M. M. (1990). Beyond separate spheres: Feminism and family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 866-884.

Hawkins, A. J., Barclay, M., & Dollahite, D. C. (1998, November). The challenge of program evaluation for family life education on the Internet: The case of FatherWork. Paper to be presented at the Annual Conference of the National Council on Family Relations, Milwaukee, WI.

Hawkins, A. J., & Dollahite, D. C. (1997). Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hochschild, A. R. (1997). The time bind. New York: Metropolitan.

Lavee, Y., & Dollahite, D. C. (1991). The linkage between theory and research in family science. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 361-374.

Levant, R. F. (1992). Toward the reconstruction of masculinity. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 379-402.

Palm, G. F. (1997). Promoting generative fathering through parent and family education. In A. J. Hawkins & D. C. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. 167-182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ruddick, S. (1989). Maternal thinking: toward a politics of peace. Boston: Beacon.

Snarey, J. (1993). How fathers care for the next generation: A four decade study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Snarey, J. (1997). The next generation of work on fathering. Foreword in A. J. Hawkins & D. C:. Dollahite (Eds.) Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (pp. ix-xii). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

APPENDIX A: GENERATIVE INVOLVEMENT IN FATHERWORK SCALES (GIFS)

The GIFS measures your involvement with your child or children from the perspective of fathering as generative work--or "fatherwork." Generative involvement consists of seven areas of fatherwork: ethical work, stewardship work, development work, recreation work, spiritual work, and mentoring work. Of course, nearly all fathers are more involved in some areas than others, and it would be unusual for a father to be highly involved in every area listed below. In addition to the level of involvement you have in each of these areas, we are interested in some of the circumstances surrounding your involvement (e.g., how challenging involvement is, whether you are trying to improve, whether you feel you enjoy involvement in the area). For each of the items below, there are two types of information we would like to receive from you. Choose which of the following statements most accurately describes your involvement by circling (or clicking:) the letter that corresponds to the following possibilities:

Circumstances of Involvement in the Area (all that apply)

C = CONDITIONS beyond control make involvement hard

I = I want to IMPROVE my involvement in this area

U = I am UNCERTAIN how to be involved in this area

E = I really ENJOY my involvement in this area

Level of Involvement in the Area (all that apply)

H = I am HARDLY involved in this area

S = I am SOMEWHAT involved in this area

F = I am FAIRLY involved in this area

Q = I am QUITE involved in this area

 Circumstances Level
 (circle all (circle one)
 that apply)

ETHICAL WORK:
1. Committing or pledging
to ensure your child's
well-being and security C I U E H S F Q

2. Continuing to be an
enduring presence in your
child's life no matter what C I U E H S F Q

STEWARDSHIP WORK:
3. Dedicating your
resources to your child so
she/he has the necessities
of life C I U E H S F Q

4. Providing possibilities
for your child to achieve
success in various areas
of life C I U E H S F Q

DEVELOPMENT WORK:
5. Being responsive and
giving your child the
attention he/she needs and
wants C I U E H S F Q

6. Changing, and improving
as a father in response to
your child's changing needs C I U E H S F Q

RECREATION WORK:
7. Relaxing and playing
together on your
child's level (especially
in times of stress) C I U E H S F Q

8. Challenging and
extending your child's
skills and coping abilities
through play C I U E H S F Q

SPIRITUAL WORK:
9. Encouraging your child
by affirming your belief
and confidence in him/her C I U E H S F Q

10. Counseling, guiding,
teaching, and advising him/
her when he/she is confused C I U E H S F Q

RELATIONAL WORK:
11. Communing with your
child by sharing
love, thoughts, and
feelings with her/him C I U E H S F Q

12. Comforting your child
by expressing empathy and
understanding to her/him C I U E H S F Q

MENTORING WORK:
13. Sharing wisdom with her/
him by imparting insights
and suggestions when asked C I U E H S F Q

14. Easing her/his burden's
by sustaining and supporting C I U E H S F Q
her or him in her/his work

15. Which TWO of the seven areas of fatherwork do you feel
most successful at? (check two)
ETH- STW- DEV- REC- SPR- REL- MEN-

16. Which TWO of the seven areas of fatherwork do you feel
least successful at or most challenged by? (check two)
ETH- STW- DEV- REC- SPR- REL- MEN-

David C. Dollahite is an associate professor of family sciences, adjunct associate professor of religious education, and founder of the Institute for Faithful Fathering at Brigham (Young University, Provo, Utah. He received an M.S. in marriage and family therapy from BYU and a Ph.D. in family social sciences from the University of Minnesota. He has served as co-chair of the Men in Families Focus Group of the National Council on Family Relations and is president of the Utah Council on Family Relations. He is a clinical member of the American Association for Marital and Family Therapy. He and his wife, Mary, have six children. (Dave_Dollahite@byu.edu)

Alan J. Hawkins is an associate professor of family sciences and director of the Center for Studies of the Family at Brigham Young University. He earned a Ph.D. in human development and family studies at Pennsylvania State University. He has been teaching and conducting research and outreach at BYU since 1990. Hawkins's scholarship and outreach has focused on fathers' involvement with their children, the effects of that involvement on men's development, and the division of domestic labor in dual-earner households. Hawkins recently co-edited (with David C. Dollahite) Generative Fathering: Beyond Deficit Perspectives (Sage, 1997). (Hawkinsa@byu.edu)

This article is a revision of a paper prepared for the Theory Construction and Research Methodology Workshop of the Annual Conference of the National Council on Family Relations in Arlington, VA, November, 1997.

We are grateful to Loren Marks for his assistance in gathering stories for this article and for making helpful comments on an earlier draft. We also appreciate helpful comments by Mark Fine on a previous version.

Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to David C. Dollahite, Department of Family Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, or Dave_dollahite@byu.edu.