Factual entertainment and reality TV.

Beck, Daniel ; Hellmueller, Lea C. ; Aeschbacher, Nina 等

1. Introduction

In 2008, the Popular Mechanics magazine named The Truman Show as one of the 10 "most prophetic science-fiction movies ever" (Popular Mechanics, 2008, March 28). Peter Weir's movie starring Jim Carrey as an average guy, who has been bought by a company as an infant, is unknowingly filmed 24 hours per day for a popular TV show, and realizes at the age of 30 that his whole life has been a televised lie, was released in 1998. Soon afterwards, the world saw the breakthrough of a new kind of factual entertainment shows that also pretended to depict real people in real situations and captured their intimate moments with the camera: Big Brother, Survivor and others were an instant success and became the prototypes of the reality TV genre already parodied in The Truman Show.

The new formats introduced around the year 2000 had several predecessors already featuring some of their characteristics. For example, the makers of The Truman Show must have been familiar with the MTV series The Real World, which documented the everyday life of ordinary people since the early 1990s; hence, they didn't need much imagination to create a fictional over-the-top version of a reality TV show. But they were prophetic with their assumption that reality TV was not a short-lived boom, and they anticipated the discussions about authenticity and ethical problems of the genre that were initiated by the popular shows of the early 21st century. Even the storyline of The Truman Show later appeared in an actual format: in 2003, Spike TV aired The Joe Schmo Show featuring a regular guy tricked into participating in a fake reality show.

Almost 15 years after The Truman Show and more than a decade after the beginning of the reality TV boom, the genre still flourishes. As of May 2012, 13 seasons of Big Brother and 24 seasons of Survivor have aired in the U.S., and CBS is preparing the next seasons of both shows (CBS, 2012). These pioneer formats still attract millions of viewers, although their audience rates have dropped over of the years. They now have to compete with a huge number of new reality-based entertainment formats introduced during the past decade. To name a few, casting shows such as the Idol, Topmodel, and Got Talent series have revived and modernized the genre of the televised talent contest by giving a deeper insight in the candidates' lives; dating game shows such as The Bachelor allow the viewers to share romantic moments with the participants; makeover and coaching programs provide advice for a better life in an entertaining way. New variations of the classical reality show depicting ordinary people's everyday life are also popular. Since 2009, millions of Americans have followed the adventures of "Snooki," "JWoww," "The Situation," and their friends in the MTV show Jersey Shore, and even President Obama publicly joked about the frequent solarium visits of the Jersey Shore cast in a speech at the White House Correspondents' Dinner (Djang, 2010). Jersey Shore also demonstrates that people may gain celebrity status by participating in a reality TV show; to name only a few examples more, one could mention successful casting show contestants such as pop singers Kelly Clarkson (American Idol, 2002) and Leona Lewis (The X-Factor, U.K., 2006), former British Big Brother candidate Jade Goody, whose death from cancer at age 27 was extensively covered by the media in early 2009 (Walter, 2010), or Kim Kardashian, whose TV show brought her enough fame to get her own wax figure at Madame Tussauds in New York (Vena, 2010).

But success of reality TV is not limited to particular countries--it has become a global phenomenon. Local versions of the Big Brother format, which was originally developed in the Netherlands, of the British Idol, and of the American Topmodel series, as well as of many other factual entertainment programs, have successfully aired on all continents. Factual entertainment is thus very attractive for viewers and has gained importance since the end of the last century--the audience is obviously interested in watching "real" events and "real" persons in television entertainment. The fact that some of these programs are controversially discussed due to concerns over their effects on society or criticized for voyeurism, contrived settings, or commercialism, may even have increased this interest. Both success and controversy of the new factual entertainment programs have also made them an important research topic for social scientists. The goal of this essay is to provide an overview of the most important findings in studies about factual entertainment and reality TV published in the past decade.

The research and literature review is divided in three parts. The first part, dealing with the concept of reality TV, starts with a discussion about definitions of reality TV in contrast to other forms of entertainment and documentaries, then traces the history of factual entertainment in the 20th century and makes an attempt to map the current reality TV landscape by presenting the various subgenres and their development. The second part deals with reality TV as a global phenomenon and discusses why non-fictional entertaining television formats could become successful all over the world and which strategies are applied to adapt them to local markets with different viewer habits and preferences. The third part finally gives an overview of studies about the audience of reality TV programs: Why do these programs attract such a wide range of audiences? Which gratifications are sought and obtained when people watch particular formats? What do viewers think about the authenticity of reality TV shows? The role of reality TV programs in promoting neoliberal values and imparting them to their audience will also be discussed in this part.

2. The Concept of Reality TV

Big Brother, American Idol, and Jersey Shore--the reality TV genre is waxing locally and globally. Reality TV as a contemporary media phenomenon is the focus of this part. Particularly, the following section examines components of reality TV, the development of the genre, and its definitional framework; finally, it provides a discussion of current manifestations of reality TV. Major subgenres in the current reality TV landscape and their development in the past decade are further presented. in fact, since the end of the 1990s, reality TV has undergone an enormous diversification, with dozens of new formats introduced every year. Hence, this essay provides an overview of a complex and dynamic research field.

A. General characteristics of the genre

While there is more or less consensus which programs can be categorized as reality TV, it seems difficult to find a common definition for such programs like Rescue 911, The Real World, Big Brother, Survivor, Top Model, The Bachelor, Wife Swap, Judge Judy, The Osbournes, or 1900 House. Reality TV can in fact be seen as a meta-genre including various subgenres. While early reality TV formats such as The Real World focused on "real life" and the portrayal of "ordinary," non-prominent people, these characteristics are no longer typical for the genre. instead of an "attempt to 'capture' 'a life lived,'" recent formats of the genre can rather be seen as "televisual arenas of formatted environments in which the more traditional observational rhetoric of documentary jostles for space with the discourses of display and performance" (Holmes & Jermyn, 2004, p. 5).

In essence, reality TV is known for ordinary people being engaged in unscripted action and interaction (Nabi, 2007, p. 373), but some shows focusing on celebrities are also considered to be part of the genre. in any case, participants of reality TV shows may gain celebrity status due to television exposure, forming a new stratum of "ordinary" or "temporary" celebrity (Grindstaff, 2011; Riley, 2010; Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010, pp. 12-16; Holmes, 2004). Nabi and colleagues provide a very general definition of the genre and describe it as "programs that film real people as they live out events in their lives, contrived or otherwise, as they occur" (2003, p. 304). Several key elements characterize such programs: (a) people portraying themselves, (b) filmed at least in part in their living or working environment rather than on a set, (c) without a script (or at least pretending to be without a script), (d) with events placed in a narrative context, (e) for the primary purpose of entertainment (Nabi, 2007, pp. 372-373).

The genre transcends the boundaries of classical television genres by means of documentary elements, merging information with entertainment, and reality with fiction (Kruger, 2010, p. 158). Reality shows differ from classical documentaries in regard to their main intention: instead of stressing journalistic inquiry or intending to stimulate political debates, they are primarily made for entertainment and diversion (Corner, 2009, pp. 48-50). This intention leads to the use of more or less staged or artificial environments (pp. 4546). The event covered by the broadcast is initiated by the medium itself, which is not the case in conventional documentaries (Kruger, 2010, p. 159).

On the other hand, the primary distinction of reality TV from fictional entertainment is the fixation on "authentic" personalities, situations, problems, and narratives. But while program makers promise to depict reality, the plots of reality-based formats are influenced by the participants' awareness of being filmed and by the necessity for the producers to cut down the filmed footage to the length of a TV broadcast. Ganz-Blattler (2005, p. 27) argues that little is left to chance in reality TV formats: Like in fictional entertainment, location and cast are carefully selected before the shooting. But there are two main differences to fictional formats. The actors are non-professional and thus cheaper for the producers (but less controllable), and in most cases they act without a script. Still, a common characteristic of reality TV programs remains their claim to provide viewers an "unmediated, voyeuristic, and yet often playful look into what might be called the 'entertaining real'" (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 5).

The claimed "authenticity" may also be seen as a primary selling point of the genre. In order to gain public attention for their reality TV shows, TV channels often present them as extraordinary media events, stressing their importance and uniqueness. Possible means for this "eventization" (Holmes & Jermyn, 2004, p. 3) are the extensive use of program trailers; features about the show in news broadcasts; talk show appearances of hosts, makers, or participants; and in some cases even spin-off magazines providing a deeper insight into the participants' lives. Other media, especially the tabloid press, regularly cover developments in reality TV shows. The shows are particularly newsworthy if they provide dramatic contents and moral controversies. The producers intend such controversies because they raise public interest and awareness. Along with dramatization, stereotyping, focus on emotions, and intimate details, calculated breaking of taboos has thus become one of the typical strategies of reality TV producers (Klaus & Lucke, 2003, p. 208). As a consequence, a "perfume of scandal" can be observed around many shows of the genre (Biltereyst, 2004, p. 7). However, in most cases the public discussion on controversial reality TV formats calms down after the initial phase of a broadcast. in essence, if a show is successful enough to be aired over several seasons, it is no longer disputed.

Public interest is also given by the interactivity of some shows, allowing the viewers to feel that they can take part and influence the content of the show. This is especially the case in gamedocs such as Big Brother or in casting shows using televoting to evict candidates and to select the winner (e.g., Holmes, 2004). But there are also many popular reality TV formats without the possibility of televoting, e.g., programs without competition among the participants or contests in which the winner is elected solely by a jury. However, many reality-based formats involve their audience by discussing developments and candidates in online forums or, more recently, on social media pages, and providing other interactive features on the internet, thus serving also as a testing ground for media convergence (Murray & Ouellette 2009, p. 2; Andrejevic, 2008; Tincknell & Raghuram, 2002, pp. 262-265; Foster, 2004). Although the possibilities to involve viewers actively have become much more sophisticated over the years, Griffen-Foley (2004, p. 544) refers to a long tradition of interactive media: As early as the late 19th century, print media invited their audience to participate in discussions and send in their own contributions, in order to foster a sense of audience engagement and to create a loyal community among viewers.

B. The origins of reality TV--a history of factual entertainment on television

TV formats portraying ordinary people in unscripted situations are almost as old as TV itself. Allen Funt's Candid Camera about people confronted with funny, unusual situations and filmed with a hidden camera, first aired in 1948, is often seen as a prototype of reality TV programming (Clissold, 2004; McCarthy, 2009). In the beginning, some critics condemned his show as an invasion of privacy, but with the same recording technologies as used for espionage and surveillance, and playing with topics such as unquestioned authorities or uncontrollable machines, the show obviously fitted the zeitgeist of the Cold War era and became a long lasting success. The appeal of the program could also be explained--similarly to later reality TV shows--with the voyeuristic focus on unguarded, unscripted, and "intimate" experiences of other people, presented from unseen, unacknowledged vantage points.

Elements of modern reality TV can be discovered in both non-fictional entertainment shows (broadcast contests, quiz and game shows, talk shows) and documentaries about ordinary people. Thus, a history of reality TV would not be complete without a brief insight in the development of these genres with their long tradition. Like Candid Camera, the first talent contests in U.S. television date back to the late 1940s. Notable beauty and musical contests have been televised since the 1950s: The Miss America pageant was first broadcast in 1954 (Riverol, 1992, p. 49), and the annual Eurovision Song Contest, with an estimated average of 125 million viewers in recent years one of the world's most popular nonsports events on television (EBU, 2012), started in 1956. While in the early years, the winners of such contests were mostly elected by a jury, the first forms of voting by the viewers appeared in the 1970s, and the widespread use of this interactive element, which has become so important in many modern reality TV shows, started in the 1990s, after the capacity of telephone networks had been remarkably improved. At Eurovision Song Contest, an international telephonic and SMS voting all over Europe was introduced in 1997 (EBU, 2012).

Quiz and game shows, giving ordinary people the possibility to present their knowledge and skills to a wide audience, were also very popular in the early years of television. in the U.S. they almost disappeared from prime time after many of the higher stake shows had been discovered to be rigged in the late 1950s, but shows with lower winning prizes soon made a comeback on daytime TV. in many other countries these shows had a much more permanent presence on both public service and private channels (Bourdon, 2004, pp. 287-289). But it was not before the 1990s when a worldwide renaissance of high stake prime time quiz shows was initiated by Who Wants to Be A Millionaire?, a British format created in 1998 and subsequently licensed or optioned in more than 100 countries (Cooper-Chen, 2005, pp. 237238; Boddy, 2001, p. 81).

Besides classical trivia-based formats, some game shows included stunts and wacky games; others concentrated on general knowledge or even culture, vocabulary, and mathematics (Boddy, 2001, p. 80; Bourdon, 2004, p. 288). Shows such as Queen for a Day (NBC/ABC, 1956-1964) or Strike It Rich (CBS, 1951-1958), where the candidates had to describe an object or service they desperately needed and were awarded with personalized prizes, already anticipated elements of confessional talk shows and make-over programs (Watts 2009, p. 303). Dating shows such as The Dating Game (first on ABC, 1965) were another subgenre in which the candidates had to sacrifice some of their privacy (Gray, 2009, p. 261; James, 2003). With the game element omitted, it was a short step from such shows to the confessional talk show genre, focusing on ordinary people instead of the celebrity guests that appeared in the classical talk show formats. This subgenre, presenting intimate stories and often touching taboos, was mainly introduced by The Phil Donahue Show in 1967. The concept was popularized by The Oprah Winfrey Show (1986-2011) and became very successful in American and European daytime programs in the 1990s, after the focus of many shows had shifted from personal issues connected with social injustice to interpersonal conflicts, but declined in popularity afterwards (Shattuc, 2001). While confessional talk shows are not always seen as a subgenre of reality TV, they feature typical elements of the genre like helping ordinary people to screen presence and establishing problems of everyday life as communication topics (Grimm, 2010, p. 219).

Besides non-fictional entertainment shows, another important ancestry line in the genealogy of reality TV refers to documentaries. McCarthy (2009, p. 35) argues that in Candid Camera and other projects, Allen Funt wanted to document the behavior of "the average man in a crisis." His work attracted the attention of social scientists that started using hidden cameras for their research, including Stanley Milgram who became famous for his controversial experiments on obedience to authorities held at Yale University in the early 1960s. The scientific background of the wish to depict "real" life and "real" actions of ordinary people may be an explanation why some public service channels, with their mission of popular education (Bourdon, 2004, p. 285), were among the pioneers in the field of documentaries seen as precursors of modern reality TV formats. This stands in contrast to the present-day perception that reality TV formats as cheap, commercialized and sometimes ethically controversial programs are mainly broadcast by private TV stations.

An American Family, broadcast on PBS from 1971 to 1973, is often discussed as one of the first reality TV programs (Murray, 2009, p. 66). Originally intended to be a chronicle of the daily life of a typical American family, the 12-part series documented the separation of the parents Bill and Pat Loud, as well as the coming-out of their homosexual son Lance. The program stood in the tradition of observational ("fly-on-the-wall") documentaries introduced in the 1960s (Bruzzi, 2001b), but also borrowed structural elements of drama and soap opera with the intention to question the conventional depictions of family life in fictional entertainment (Kompare, 2009, p. 107). The series was very popular, but also provoked scandalized reactions: The Louds were criticized as either symbols of the cultural fallout of the 1960s or as victims of a manipulative sociological experiment conducted by unscrupulous producers (p. 102). Three decades later, a similar format demonstrated the fluid boundaries between documentary and reality TV: American High, a series about the lives of 14 high school students, was sold as a reality program since its first appearance on Fox in August 2000. In the following year, PBS picked up the program and marketed it as a documentary series (Murray, 2009, p. 70). From the present-day perspective, An American Family and later formats depicting people in their usual, more or less extraordinary living or professional environment may be categorized as docusoaps. Docusoaps differ from conventional documentaries as they prioritize entertainment over social commentary and take advantage of structural and dramaturgical elements known from soap operas such as the focus on character personality, short narrative sequences, intercuts of multiple plot lines, mini cliff-hangers and the use of a musical soundtrack (Bruzzi, 2001a, p. 132; Bruzzi, 2000, p. 89; Kilborn, 2003, p. 89-121).

Crime appeal programs were another early form of reality TV. A pioneer in this field was the German show Aktenzeichen XY ... Ungelost, which started on the public-service channel ZDF in 1967. The program consisted of film clips reconstructing serious unsolved crimes, interviews with police officers and victims' families, images of suspects, and appeals to the viewers to phone in and to volunteer information. The format was later sold to other countries, including the United Kingdom (Crimewatch, BBC, since 1984) and the U.S.A. (America's Most Wanted, Fox, since 1988). These programs were often criticized as cheap and voyeuristic--similar to the discussion about later controversial reality TV programs (Jermyn, 2004, p. 71; Bourdon, 2004, p. 298). Nevertheless, they remained on air for decades and paved the way for other formats showing police and other emergency forces at work, such as Cops (Fox, since 1989), Rescue 911 (CBS, 1989-1996) and international adaptations such as the British 999 (BBC, 1992-2003) and the German Notruf (RTL, 1992-2006). These magazine-style programs combining camcorder or surveillance footage, eyewitness testimonies, reconstructed scenes, and expert statements were the first for which contemporary scientists and media actually used the term "reality TV" in the public discussion. They have also applied this term for talk shows, docusoaps, and a new form, "constructed" documentaries only since the mid-1990s (Dovey, 2001, p. 135).

The earliest notable examples for this new form were the Dutch series Nummer 28 (1991) and the very similar American The Real World (MTV, since 1992). Both formats entail many of the textual characteristics, which are defining the current form of reality TV. For example, young adults were cast in a manner to ignite conflict and dramatic narrative development and placed in a setting filled with cameras and microphones, and the producers employed rapid editing techniques in an overall serial structure (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, pp. 4-5). All these elements reappeared some years later in Survivor (first as Expedition Robinson on SVT, Sweden, 1997) and Big Brother (first on Veronica, Netherlands, 1999), the two formats initiating the boom of reality TV in the beginning of the 21st century. Both programs combined the voyeuristic aspect of the reality program with the competitive element of the game show (Tincknell & Raghuram, 2002, p. 201). in spite, if not because, of controversial discussions in the media, the new shows had immediate success and were sold to many other countries. in the following years, dozens of new formats fitting the definitions of reality television mentioned above--and first of all, sold as reality formats by the producers--were introduced all over the world and led to a massive diversification of the genre, since they combined elements of other genres and introduced new elements.

C. Reality TV in the 21st century--a wide range of subgenres

Various typologies to classify the subgenres of reality TV have been proposed during the past years. Murray and Ouellette (2009, p. 5) identified eight established subgenres: gamedocs, dating programs, makeover programs, docusoaps, talent contests, court programs, reality sitcoms, and celebrity variations of other programs. As rather new tendencies, they name the growing importance of charity programs and lifestyle games with expert guidance, as well as the introduction of spoof shows. Hill, Weibull, and Nilsson (2007, p. 18) outlined infotainment, docusoap, lifestyle, reality game shows, and lifestyle experiment programs as main categories of reality TV. Nabi et al. (2006, p. 433) proposed a categorization based on six main topics: romance, crime, informational, reality-drama, competition/game, and talent. From the industry perspective, Fitzgerald (2003) proposed a similar categorization distinguishing talent and survival competitions, personal makeover, home makeover, get-rich-quick schemes, docudramas, and "Mr. Right" programs.

Thanks to these typologies, several overlapping categories may be discovered, including dating, game/competition, and drama/soaps. But most categorizations fail to capture the full range of reality programming, since new programs are developed every season. Furthermore, simple typologies often do not articulate program characteristics defining each category, so it remains arguable which category new formats qualify for. Finally, many formats could be seen in two or more categories: For instance, there is a strong element of competition in many dating formats, and gamedocs feature elements of docusoaps (Nabi, 2007, pp. 373-374).

Nabi (2007) attempted to map the reality TV landscape more systematically. She asked the participants of her survey to rate reality TV programs along attributes such as competitive, romantic, realistic, funny, or suspenseful. As a result, she identified romance and competition as the "two characteristics most salient to audiences when thinking about reality-based programming" (Nabi, 2007, p. 383) and as key dimensions distinguishing among reality programs. With the exception of dating programs, no other clearly differentiated group emerged on her two-dimensional scheme of reality TV, which means that in the viewers' eyes, the boundaries between and among subgenres are rather fluid.

Klaus and Lucke (2003, p. 199) chose a different approach to characterize various subgenres of reality TV and to bring them in a systematic order: They distinguished "narrative" and "performative" reality TV. Narrative reality TV refers to formats entertaining the viewers by an authentic or staged rendition of extraordinary, real, or close-to-reality events with non-prominent actors, whereas formats providing a stage for uncommon performances with a direct impact on the participants' lives fall into the category of performative reality TV. By this definition, the latter category includes all reality TV formats with competitive elements. Klaus and Lucke also distinguished "docusoaps" portraying people in their usual living environment and "reality soaps" bringing them in a new, uncommon environment. The following overview and characterization of the most important subgenres is based on the work by Lunenborg et al. (2011), who refined and updated Klaus and Lucke's typology.

Telling "real" stories: narrative reality TV. Narrative reality TV includes some of the early forms of reality TV such as the news magazine programs based around emergency service activities, and docu-soaps about people of any professional or private background. According to Lunenborg et al. (2011, p. 21), other subgenres of narrative reality TV are real life comedy such as the MTV series Jackass (20002002), court programs (Judge Judy, CBS, since 1996), and personal help shows about people in social professions helping other people (e.g., Die Jugendberaterin and Die Streetworker, both on ProSieben, Germany, 2002-2004).

Docusoaps remained successful throughout the first decade of the 21st century. Notable American examples include the Real Housewives series (first as The Real Housewives of Orange County on Bravo, 2006), inspired by the fictional ABC series Desperate Housewives and following the lives of affluent housewives in American suburbs; Jon & Kate Plus 8 (Discovery Health/TLC, 2007-2011), portraying a family with sextuplets and twins; Laguna Beach (MTV, 2004-2006) about teenagers in California filmed in a rather narrative than documentary style; and its spin-off The Hills (2006-2010). Another series dealing with young people partying on the beach became MTV's biggest reality TV success so far: Jersey Shore, following eight housemates--mostly of Italian-American origin--spending their summer at the Jersey Shore and on other beaches, started in December 2009 and set record ratings of up to 8.45 million viewers per show (Gorman, 2011). The series introduced new terms, acronyms, and phrases into American popular culture and caused controversies regarding the portrayal of Italian-American stereo types. Unlike in The Real World, but like in some other more recent formats, the cast of Jersey Shore did not change with the start of a new season. As a result, the participants' notoriety does not fade after the end of a season, as it is the case in many other reality TV formats, but is continuously revived. The Jersey Shore protagonists have thus become well-established media celebrities. However, as of the end of the fourth season in autumn 2011, their celebrity status is still no issue in the show itself. in the meantime, Jersey Shore has become a field of academic research of its own, with universities organizing classes and conferences focusing on the series (e.g., University of Chicago, 2011; Caramanico, 2011).

Besides docusoaps about "ordinary" people possibly becoming celebrities in the course of the broadcast, the early 21st century also saw the introduction of celebrity docusoaps, giving an insight into the daily life of already prominent people. Sometimes these shows are made in a humorous way, using narrative conventions of the sitcom genre. The Osbournes (MTV, 2002-2005), depicting the life of rock star Ozzy Osbourne and his family, may thus be categorized as a docusoap (Dhoest, 2004), but also, more precisely, as a docusitcom or reality sitcom (Gillan, 2004; Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 5). Other MTV series documented the life of pop singer couple Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachay (Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica, 2003-2005) and the beginning of the musical career of Ashlee Simpson, Jessica's younger sister (The Ashlee Simpson Show, 2004-2005). Success of such celebrity shows is not determined by the initial celebrity status of the portrayed personality, and this status may change in the course of the series: Kim Kardashian, the main protagonist of Keeping Up with the Kardashians (E!, since 2007), had mainly gained notoriety for suing a pornographic film company after the publication of a private sex tape; but she developed her career as a model, actress, and businesswoman parallel to the broadcast of her show, which offered a platform to promote her commercial projects. in any case, the celebrity docusoap or docusitcom can be seen as a means for more or less prominent people to keep the attention of the media and the audience.

In contradiction to the claim to depict "real life," not every format in the field of narrative reality TV is unscripted. Producers of reality TV formats--including The Hills and Jersey Shore--are regularly accused by viewers, former participants, or former collaborators that parts of their shows are scripted, and possibly faked scenes are discussed in internet forums and specialized blogs like Realityblurred.com, sometimes also in the popular press. But in several formats, the existence of a script is openly admitted: Court programs and personal help shows usually present fictional cases; what counts is that the experts are "real" (Grimm, 2010, p. 222). Since 2009, pseudo-documentaries dealing with crime suspects (Verdachtsfalle, RTL), families in trouble (Familien im Brennpunkt, RTL), young holiday makers (X-Diaries, RTL2), or other everyday stories, written by screenwriters, staged with non-professional actors, and respecting formal conventions of the documentary genre, reached market shares up to 30% in Germany (Lunenborg et al., 2011, p. 24). The only formal difference to conventional, unscripted docusoaps is a discrete indication of the fictionality in the end credits. For the producers, these formats have two advantages: (1) Regarding the need for more sensational and extraordinary stories, it has become easier to cast actors than to find interesting people willing and able to tell their story on television; and (2) the makers can insert statements and confessions which would hardly be made in public by real people, especially in contexts of crime (Brauck, 2009, p. 87). The success of these broadcasts proves that viewers obviously don't care much about the lack of authenticity.

Documenting an important change in life: dating and makeover programs. Like docusoaps, dating and makeover programs usually depict the participants' actual living environment, but they are intended to have a direct impact on their lives. Contrary to earlier dating shows, modern representatives of the genre such as Blind Date (syndication, 1999-2006), Fifth Wheel (syndication, 2001-2004), or Elimidate (syndication, 2001-2006) are considered to be more "sexualized" with dates involving plenty of drinking, competitive stripping, bumping and grinding, and making out; while these programs played well in the late evening slots, serialized dating game shows with a strong competitive element such as The Bachelor (ABC, since 2002) became successful on prime time TV (Gray, 2009, p. 262). Another serialized dating program is the docusoap-like Farmer Wants a Wife, where farmers are presented with women from the city. This format was developed by Fremantle in the United Kingdom and premiered on ITV in 2001, but the German-speaking Swiss public television had already portrayed and accompanied farmers looking for a wife much earlier--in a documentary series dating from 1983 (Beck & Jecker, 2012, p. 358).

Finding Miss Perfect or Mr. Right has not remained the only change in a person's life documented by reality TV. Along with the serialized dating shows, lifestyle makeover shows, in which aspects of the everyday life of ordinary people are improved with the aid of experts, have also become quite popular (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 5). These shows deal with personal appearance (What Not to Wear, first on BBC, U.K., 2001; The Swan, Fox, 2004; Extreme Makeover, ABC, 2002-2007), homes (Changing Rooms, first on BBC, U.K., 1996; Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, ABC, 2003-2012), or vehicles (Pimp My Ride, MTV, 2004-2007), which makes them a field to study lifestyle ideals in different cultures or pressure to conformity in lifestyle issues (e.g., Franco, 2008; Lewis, 2010 & 2011; Palmer, 2004). Coaching shows follow a similar concept of documenting an improvement in life, but they focus on serious personal problems and propose positive alternatives for acting (Grimm, 2010, p. 221). Unlike in the personal help shows already mentioned, the presented cases are not fictional. The prototype of this subgenre was Supernanny (first on Channel 4, U.K., 2004) trying to solve parent-child conflicts; other formats such as Raus aus den Schulden (RTL, Germany, since 2007) concern the financial situation of families and individuals.

Getting along in new settings: reality soaps, swap documentaries, and living history programs. The reality soap is defined by Lunenborg et al. (2011, p. 28) as a dramatized version of the docusoap: The participants act in artificial settings under extraordinary conditions, and the plot is formed by their interactions in a new situation. They have to get along with themselves, with the other participants, and with the role of the media. in many cases, competition between the participants is a central element, which increases the probability of conflicts among them. These conflicts are extensively discussed in the show (Thornborrow & Morris, 2004). Reality soaps with competing participants thus combine the agenda of a talk show with the style of a documentary and the format of a game show (Tincknell & Raghuram, 2002, p. 205).

The Real World, bringing together different people in a new environment, can be seen as the prototypical reality soap, but the best known format of the subgenre is undoubtedly the Endemol production Big Brother, first broadcast in the Netherlands in 1999 and subsequently aired in more than 40 different countries. The original concept consisted of 10 to 16 competitors living together in an apartment, isolated from the outside world, continuously watched by cameras, and trying to win a cash prize by doing their best in the games proposed by the producers and thus avoiding eviction by the viewers' periodic televoting (Aslama, 2009, pp. 81-82; Tincknell & Raghuram, 2002, p. 202). This concept was refined and varied in later seasons by additional rules and elements provoking conflicts, such as the separation of the participants in "rich" and "poor" groups, the introduction of secret missions, moles, or identical twins pretending to be a single person. Other gamedoc formats focused on rather specialized settings or aspects: In The Farm (first on TV4, Sweden, 2001), the contestants lived and worked together on a farm, raising animals and doing agricultural work. Survivor, first aired two years before Big Brother, tested the participants' skills to get along in the wilderness of a tropical island. Fear Factor (first on Veronica, Netherlands, 1998) concentrated rather on game elements: The contestants had to face trials of courage testing their physical ability and stunts meant to challenge them mentally, e.g., eating vile animal parts, immersing one's head or entire body in animals considered to be disgusting or intimidating, or retrieving hidden objects in disgusting substances. I'm a Celebrity, Get Me out of Here! (first on ITV, U.K., 2002) combined elements of Survivor and Fear Factor by bringing together participants in a jungle camp where they not only had to struggle with the limitations of living in the wilderness, but also with mentally challenging games in the style of the Fear Factor stunts. Another characteristic of the format, the choice of celebrities as participants, brought two advantages: Viewers may be more interested in the show because they are already familiar with the characters, and since prominent participants are presumably more aware of the role of the media and the consequences of their appearance on television than ordinary people, there are fewer objections against particularly sensational or disgusting show elements (Lunenborg et al., 2011, p. 29). Big Brother, The Farm, and other reality soaps were thus also aired as celebrity formats in many countries. However, many candidates presented as celebrities had only gained notoriety thanks to previous participation in other reality TV shows.

A variation of the reality soap with less stress on competition is the swap documentary or "lifestyle experiment program" (Hill, Weibull, & Nilsson, 2007, p. 24) such as Wife Swap (first on Channel 4, U.K., 2003), Holiday Showdown (first on ITV, U.K., 2003), or, as a celebrity format, The Simple Life with Paris and Nicole Hilton (Fox, 2003-2007). Accompanied by cameras, the participants change their usual living environment for a new environment. The main idea of these formats is to confront different ways of life, which may result in funny or conflict-laden situations (Lunenborg et al., 2011, 30). Finally, a particular form of reality soaps are living history formats in which the participants act in historical settings. These formats give an insight into everyday life in former times and focus on the differences between then and now and on the problems of modern people trying to use skills which were important in the past. Due to this educational function, living history formats, unlike other modern forms of reality TV, are seen in accordance with the tasks of public service television and therefore became a domain of public service broadcasters: Living in the Past, a BBC documentary following the creation of an iron Age settlement by a group of volunteers, dates back to 1978 (Duguid, 2010). More recently, living history formats were introduced by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom (1900 House, 1999), PBS in the U.S.A. (Frontier House, 2002), ARD in Germany (Schwarzwaldhaus 1902, 2002), France 3 in France (Retour vers le neolithique, 2003), and many others. The simple rural life of the 19th and early 20th century and survival in prehistoric times were particularly popular motives for these formats. Contrary to gamedocs set in a difficult living environment, there is usually no competition among the participants in living history formats (West, 2010).

Making a dream come true: casting shows. Like reality soaps, casting shows have proved to be a particularly successful subgenre of reality TV. Their aim is to discover new singing, acting, or other talents presenting themselves in front of a jury. In contrast to conventional talent contests, the depiction of the selection process has become much more important in modern casting shows. The programs do not only focus on the candidates' performances, but also on their behavior and emotions behind the stage, their families and their living environment, the discussions inside the jury, and the conflicts between jury and candidates. As a result, the casting show can be seen as a hybrid format merging elements of talent contest, docusoap, reality soap, and comedy (Lunenborg et al., 2011, pp. 25-27). Strong "eventization" can be observed in many casting shows: Cross-promotion for spin-off magazines and merchandizing products (e.g., CDs and DVDs), as well as extensive media coverage about the candidates and the jury are quite frequent. in addition to revenues from TV spots, sponsoring, product placement, and merchandizing, televoting may be an important source to finance a casting show, since many formats (but not all) are interactive, with the winner being elected by the viewers. From an economic point of view, casting shows are thus particularly profitable for media companies (Jenkins, 2009).

The first modern casting show was Popstars, developed by producer Jonathan Dowling in New Zealand and first aired there in 1999 before being franchised in more than 30 countries all over the world. The aim of the show was to cast members for an all-girl pop group. An even greater and longer-lasting international success was the Idol series created by Simon Fuller and produced by Fremantle, first aired as Pop Idol in the United Kingdom in 2001. All over the world, more than 40 adaptations of this singing contest with single artists competing against each other have been aired, including American Idol in the U.S.A. and transnational versions in Africa, the Arab World, and Latin America (Livio, 2010, pp. 169-170). in some countries, very similar non-licensed derivations of the Idol format were broadcast, such as the Austrian Starmania (2002-2009) and its Swiss adaptation MusicStar (2003-2009) (Beck & Jecker 2012, pp. 360-361). More recent casting shows for singers such as The X-Factor (first on ITV, U.K., 2004) and The Voice (first on RTL 4, Netherlands, 2010) lay more stress on the role of the jury members, who don't only evaluate the performances, but also act as coaches or mentors for the candidates.

While singing contests were the earliest and probably most typical form of casting shows, the subgenre soon diversified: The Top Model series, featuring young women competing for a contract with a major modeling agency, started in the U.S.A. in 2003 and became a similar international success like the Idol format. in the Got Talent series (in the U.S.A. since 2005, in the U.K., where the show was developed by Simon Cowell, since 2006), any extraordinary show talent can be presented in front of a jury. Casting shows have also been made for comedians (Last Comic Standing, NBC, 2003-2010), dancers (So You Think You Can Dance, Fox, since 2005), chefs (Hell's Kitchen, first on ITV, U.K., 2004), business jobs (The Apprentice, first on NBC, 2004), fashion designers (Project Runway, Bravo/Lifetime, since 2004), and even mentalists (The Next Uri Geller, first in Israel in 2007). Particular research has been done about the depiction of work ethic in such formats (e.g., Hendershot, 2009). Dancing with the Stars (first as Strictly Come Dancing on BBC, U.K., 2004) pairs celebrities with professional dancers competing in ballroom and Latin dances and can thus be seen as a casting show format involving celebrities as candidates. in Hit Me, Baby, One More Time (first on ITV, U.K., 2004), former pop stars trying to make a comeback competed against each other.

Hoaxing the real: spoof shows. The boom of reality TV has also lead to the introduction of spoof shows. While formats such as The Joe Schmo Show (Spike TV, 2003-2004), a gamedoc in which all but one participant were actors playing stereotypes of common reality TV show contestants, can be seen as humorous parodies for the entertainment of savvy viewers (Hearn, 2009), some spoof shows were intended to animate the critical discussion about the reality TV genre or about a social issue. One of the best-known examples is the Dutch Big Donor Show about three contestants striving to receive the kidney of a supposedly terminally ill woman, produced by Endemol in 2007. The announcement of the show triggered a debate on the current state of television, and some members of the Dutch parliament considered banning the broadcast. The revelation of the hoax created even more accusations of ratings-driven sensationalism, but Endemol claimed that the goal was to cast a critical eye on the situation of patients awaiting organ transplants (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 1).

Some years earlier, when Survivor and Big Brother had become an instant success on private television, most European public service channels refused to air such formats, judging them unsuitable with their mandate and their quality standards. In summer 2001, it was thus a surprise when TSR, the public service broadcaster in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, introduced Generation 01, a Big-Brother-like series with particularly hard conditions for the contestants. But the show was a fake: All "contestants" were in fact actors, and their actions were fully scripted. TSR wanted to reveal this in the final episode in order to start a discussion about the boundaries between reality and fiction in reality TV formats, but journalists from Tribune de Geneve, a regional newspaper from Geneva, became suspicious, investigated, and published the facts while the series was still running. in the following discussion, TSR was harshly criticized for having fooled the audience and other media when announcing the show (Clavien, 2003, pp. 109-111).

The controversies about the Dutch and the earlier Swiss spoof show do not only illustrate the high media interest in reality TV formats, but also document how the public perception of programs between reality and fiction has changed with the viewers' growing experience with the genre. While in 2001, some media still saw a scandal in the mere fact that Generation 01 was faked, the main controversy about the Big Donor Show from 2007 was caused by the provocative, taboo-touching setting of the show. Unlike these examples, more recent "scripted reality" formats, which are in fact also faked, have no longer provoked similar public discussions.

3. Globalization of Factual Entertainment Formats

The popularity of factual entertainment formats such as Idol is "more than just another trend in an industry perennially hungry for hit shows and eager to follow them" (Waisbord, 2004, p. 360). it is a trend geared by the globalization of the business model of television. Scholars (e.g., Waisbord, 2004) argue that the commercialization and homogenization of media systems served as the bases for successful exports and imports of formats across the globe. As soon as media organizations adapted principles of a market model of journalism such as private ownership and profit-orient ed strategies, they became interested in reality TV to attract a wide range of viewers. For example, the success of Pop Idol (in the U.K.) and American Idol (in the U.S.) did not reside in one country only. The format successfully traveled to Canada (i.e., Canadian Idol), Switzerland (i.e., MusicStar), and many more countries.

However, few viewers today suspect that their favorite shows are adaptations of foreign formats, as it is the case with soaps such as the German Gute Zeiten, Schlechte Zeiten--an adaptation of the Australian soap, The Restless Years (Chalaby, 2011). This is mainly because the shows are adapted to a local culture and available to a local audience. Hence, their success rests upon their integration into a particular culture. in essence, the industry today is dominated by global television formats. That was not always the case. Before the 1990s, when television was more a protected industry with "regulatory stonewalls" (Waisbord, 2004, p. 360), producers of European public service channels often imported the idea or elements, but not the format of American shows. in many cases, the concepts of U.S. game shows were "dissolved" in long-lasting variety shows made to appeal to the whole family (Bourdon, 2004, p. 296). For example, Teleboy in Switzerland (1974-1981) and Verstehen Sie Spass? in Germany (since 1980) were Saturday night prime time shows combining hidden camera clips in the style of Candid Camera, games, and entertaining show elements.

The hesitation of European producers to integrate foreign formats in their own programming reflects the importance of cultural and system level influences on TV programming (Shoemaker & Vos, 2009). in other words, the success and the integration of factual entertainment formats still remain tied to local and national cultures.

One of the contemporary paradigms in comparative media research results from such a paradoxical co- existence of the differences and the universal (i.e., the West and the Global) in media structures and content across the globe (Wahl-Jorgensen & Hanitzsch, 2009): National borders may no longer draw distinctions between one media culture and another, but diversities in media cultures might be based more on cultural, linguistic, or ethnic criteria, which may cross national borders.

Media system analyses resonate well with such an approach. Distinctive media traditions developed because of the dependencies of the media field on economic and political pressures (Benson & Hallin, 2007; Hanitzsch & Mellado, 2011). Hallin and Mancini (2004) provide ample evidence that different philosophies have lead to different concepts of media systems. Contrary to the U.S., western European countries have long been skeptical of a free media market and seek to improve diversity by assigning a specific role to the state as a regulative force to enhance the media's role as a social institution. Such media system differences are mirrored in media freedom rankings, which are annually published by non-governmental organizations such as Freedom House, for example. On the other hand, endogenous and exogenous forces of change are also at play. Privatization of television and convergence toward the U.S. model are affecting media systems, which has led scholars to conclude that distinctions have disappeared while a global ideal is appearing (Benson & Hallin, 2007).

Without a doubt, the success of television formats was dependent on the globalization of the economics of the television industry (Waisbord, 2004). After media systems were commercialized, economic interests stimulated an appeal to increase financial resources--an attractive move for media corporations to position themselves in a global market. Revenues no longer depended on a single market, but expanded to global markets. Furthermore, as soon as commercial principles dominated a wide global market, formatted programs could be adopted elsewhere. For example, Britain's Pearson Television's hit Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been sold to over 100 countries including Afghanistan, Russia, and Saudi Arabia (BBC online, 2006). On the other hand, a number of non-Western companies also became important producers and exporters of television programming. For example, Latin American started exporting products to Europe and the United States. But the U.S. influence remains strong. And, with new entrants participating in the global exchange of audiovisual products, enormous inequalities still exist on a global scale (Waisbord, 2004).

A. Global market logic--cultural adaptation?

Global market logics consist of the aim of selling audiences to advertisers. The higher their audience share, the more attractive is their programming to advertisers, which eventually determines the organizations' position in comparisons to its competitors. if television stations buy a format, they, on the other hand, also save money as game shows or other reality TV formats do not require the acquisition of professional actors. For example, NBC's game show Twenty one costs three times less than an episode of Law and Order (Waisbord, 2004). And, they provide low risks for a media company since in a way they provide a history of success and knowledge because of their experiences with adaptation processes in other countries. Furthermore, they draw a lot of their fans onto their website, which increases audience engagement and attracts advertisers in a long run.

Because media organizations are embedded in a particular culture, the standardization and adaptation processes of TV formats is also a battle among competing ideas to what extent a format should be adapted to a local culture or whether a global product should be part of a certain media culture at all. in fact, some European countries indeed have quotas that primarily aim to curb the import of Hollywood programs (Tunstall & Machin, 1999). Hence, similarities and differences that come with a globalization of TV formatting have to be looked at in their interplay, rather than deciding whether global or local trumps in a particular case. As Waisbord (2004) argues, global media trends and the national are not antithetical, but integrated.

How can a global product then be integrated in a local culture and attract local viewers? This bears on the underlining question whether a global economy may transform a local culture into a globalized television culture. On the other hand, the local and national cultures may still pull the economy of TV formatting in an opposite direction by influencing its success in a local market. Such a discussion reflects internal struggles of a media industry of how "the globalization of the business model of television and the efforts of international and domestic companies deal with the resilience of national cultures" (Waisbord, 2004, p. 360).

While economic global successes of TV formats are discussed widely, discussions on cultural adaptations seem to be more complex. To begin with, culture is defined as networks of knowledge (Hong, 2009). As a knowledge tradition, culture is shared among a collection of interconnected individuals (often demarcated by race, ethnicity, or nationality) to form a common ground for communication. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next while undergoing continuous modifications by newer social orders. Such a definition prevents conflating culture with racial, ethnic, or national groups. While those groups are agents of culture, the causal potential does not reside in them. Rather "networks of shared knowledge are activated in a probabilistic manner in certain social contexts" (Hong, 2009, p. 4).

Indeed, factual entertainment represents networks of shared knowledge and functions as a cultural transmitter, as a binding force in certain social contexts. in other words, embedded in a meaning, which may be understood only to members of a certain social context (particularly evident in humor used in such shows), their content offers representation of cultural values, beliefs, and processes of perception for a particular culture.

Research into intercultural communication has revealed that perceptions of cultural similarity affect with whom people initiate and maintain communication (King, 1976; McCroskey, 1966; McCroskey & Young, 1981; Neuliep, Hintz, & McCroskey, 2005; Wheeless, 1974). Furthermore, research shows that consumers respond to advertising messages congruent with their culture and with people who reflect its values (e.g., Paek, 2005). in a cultural context, a celebrity for example, functions as a cultural hero. Viewers identify with reality stars because such stars represent a high amount of culturally shared norms and values like national celebrities or heroes (de Mooij, 2010; Shearman, 2008; Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005). For example, Roger Federer represents such a prototype Swiss celebrity. He embodies values like modesty, being natural, and cultural diversity (by speaking a variety of languages), which are values praised and recognized in a Swiss culture.

B. Do global products travel to local viewers?

Following the shared-meaning of culture argument above, it seems not surprising that viewers still prefer domestic and regional content to foreign programs and that the cultural adaptation to foreign product is rather slow (Langdale, 1997). However, in line with the cultural argument, the distinction whether formats are successful or not bears on the question whether formats are imported from countries that share "cultural proximity" (i.e., similar values) or come from countries that share less cultural proximity (i.e., dissimilar values).

Because of the complexity, globalization phenomena linked with localization forces have long called for a better term to reflect global-local encounters. More than 10 years ago, Kraidy (1999) argued that "the term 'glocalization' obtained by telescoping 'globalization' and 'localization' is a more heuristic concept that takes into account the local, national, regional, and global contexts of intercultural communicative processes" (p. 472). The intersection of globalization and localization is thus conceptualized as a hybridity, which becomes the rule rather than the exception. Distinctions based on the two poles--local audiences and global media--foremost serve heuristic categorization in understanding a global TV market. However, practical inquiries preserve a glocalization logic, i.e., an understanding of global products embedded in a local cultures.

In recent years, scholars followed glocalization claims to analyze how global narratives are operating in a local context to established discourses of national identities (e.g., Price, 2010; Baltruschat, 2009). For example, Price (2010) looked at popular Australian myth in reality formats and argued that reality TV serves as a means to construct Australian identity; it reinforces "dominant ideas of culture and values with televisual conventions of factuality and entertainment" (Price, 2010, p. 458).

In a Canadian case, Baltruschat (2009) discusses how glocalization processes led to the production of Canadian Idol--an adaptation of the international success of Idol. The combination of the U.K. and the U.S. versions was adapted to a Canadian market with the addition of Canadian contestants and cultural references. Depiction of local stories, references to national symbols and cultural signifiers worked well in adapting to a Canadian culture. Such cultural signifiers include "opening shots of historic Canadian sites, performing the national anthem as part of televised auditions, and staging media events, as well as a variety of online interactive elements" (Baltruschat, 2009, p. 54).

Different cultural nuances can also be accommodated by content factors. For example, Hetsroni and Tukachinsky (2003) compared the themes of questions asked in the quiz show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in America, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. Results showed that questions mirrored cultural differences between the countries: in the U.S. case, questions focused on popular culture, whereas the Saudi quiz overemphasized national identity. Hence, we observe key elements being standardized among formats such as narratives of formats. But more in-depth, formats are also embedded into a culture by overemphasizing dominant cultural values, manifested in "cultural signifiers."

In conclusion, global formats may well succeed because they are flexible to cultural differences. in essence, standardized narratives of factual entertainment formats provide the opportunity to accommodate local cultural frames by adapting its content to a local culture, which echoes glocalization claims--integrating global formats for local audiences.

4. Reality TV from the Audience Perspective

Why do reality TV formats attract a wide range of audiences? They claim to depict real people and real events, but their "reality" is manipulated for dramaturgical reasons by edited and reconstructed scenes, by careful selection of cast and settings, and sometimes by scripted elements. Our overview of studies dealing with reality TV from the audience perspective thus starts with findings on how viewers perceive and judge the authenticity of reality TV programs. Another important research field is the viewers' motivation for watching these programs; numerous analyses have been made about the appeal of reality TV for viewers in general or concerning particular subgenres. Many of these studies are still exploratory, limited to specific social groups (often students or adolescents) or regions. Lots of research still has to be done, especially in the field of intercultural differences in the reception of reality TV formats. Yet the existing studies provide a first overview of which gratifications may be obtained by watching reality TV. The final section of this part will focus on the role of reality TV programs in imparting particular values to their audience: Various scholars have discussed how the settings of these programs reflect and promote the principles of neoliberalism.

A. Perception of authenticity, criticism, and concerns about reality TV

It is often assumed that regular viewers of reality TV have become quite savvy and skeptical when judging how much is actually "real" in these programs (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 6). Although authenticity is desired by the viewers and earnestly promoted by the producers, various scholars argue that in the "post-documentary context" (Corner, 2009, p. 53) of reality TV, consumers are not so much interested in absolute truth, but enjoy "the ironic mixture of the factitious and the spontaneous" (Rose & Wood, 2005, p. 286). Empirical support for this position is provided by an Associated Press/TV Guide poll from 2005: The participants indicated that "they did not believe reality TV was real, but they also didn't care that much" (Murray & Ouellette, 2009, p. 8). In fact, 25% of the 1002 adults polled assumed that reality shows are totally made up, and 57% believed that they show some truth, but are mostly distorted. But only 30% said that it mattered for them whether the shows were truthful or not (Bauder, 2005).

Alice Hall (2003, 2006, 2009) conducted focus group interviews in order to analyze the perception of the authenticity of reality TV programs more in-depth. Among the various criteria contributing to audiences' perceptions of realism, she considered two as particularly relevant to reality programs: typicality, i.e., the perception that a media text portrays events or characteristics that are representative of a particular population, and factuality, i.e., the perception that a media text accurately represents a specific real-world event or person. In the discussion of typicality of reality programs, many respondents argued that the cast members and situations they represent were strikingly unrepresentative. They were more likely to accept the factuality of the programs, tending to expect non-actors in unscripted situations, but acknowledging that these situations were often contrived and that the presence of the camera may have influenced the cast's behavior (Hall, 2009, p. 209).

In their study based on in-depth interviews with 15 adult reality TV viewers, Rose and Wood (2005) found that the programs are seen as a mix of authentic and fictional elements. in order to consider the programs as authentic, the viewers have to negotiate the paradoxes and contradictions inherent in the genre and to reconcile the tensions between what is subjectively real and fictional. The highest satisfaction with the authenticity of a program is reached if these contradictions are experienced as resonant and engaging rather than as bewildering or confusing (p. 294). But the perception of the authenticity of a particular format can change in the course of time. In group discussions with college students, Lundy, Ruth, and Park (2008) found that situations and characters in reality TV programs were considered as more and more unreal and exaggerated over the years. The participants explained this development as a strategy of the broadcasters to attract more viewers, but criticized that the original premise of reality TV was distorted. Still, they thought that "reality TV is set up to make people believe that these things on the reality shows can actually happen" (p. 217).

While these findings show that adult viewers seem to have a rather savvy and reflexive approach towards the authenticity of reality TV, a German survey focusing on children and adolescents came to a different conclusion: Gotz (2012) interviewed pupils from 6 to 18 years old about the scripted docusoap Familien im Brennpunkt, a format presenting fictitious cases of family troubles in documentary style. 30% of the 294 respondents familiar with the series believed that real families were filmed in their everyday life, 48% thought that real cases were staged with actors, and only 22% gave the correct answer that the stories were entirely fictional. The detailed analysis showed that only among the respondents older than 16 years, a majority was aware of the way the show was produced (p. 6). The stories in Familien im Brennpunkt are highly dramatized, with conflicts between "good" and "evil" persons, and concentrate on particular social milieus. Due to the documentary style, they may have a higher impact on the children's perception of reality than openly fictional entertainment. As an example, 60% of the 6- to 14-year-olds agreed to the statement: "Since I watch Familien im Brennpunkt, I know that many people are really mean" (p. 7).

Effects of reality TV such as a distorted perception of reality may be a concern for producers, but also for viewers and scholars alike. Regarding the concerns over the effects of reality TV often discussed in public, Cohen and Weimann (2008, p. 285) also mentioned the power of reality TV to invade privacy, considering that viewers enjoy watching other people's highly personal experiences, the commercial nature of the shows serving as marketing vehicles and attracting the audience to advertisers, and the "escape from reality" that such shows provide. in their survey of television viewers in Israel, the authors found that the more people watched reality TV shows, the more they thought that these shows have an impact and should be regulated and limited. However, criticism of the shows was not related to the intensity of watching. The main criticisms were that the shows are faked, voyeuristic, and exploitative (Cohen & Weimann, 2008, pp. 392-394).

All in all, adult reality TV viewers can be seen as a rather "active" audience reflecting on the authenticity of the programs and expressing criticism and concerns. As already mentioned in Part 2, the consumers are also "active" due to the interactivity of many reality TV shows, participating in televoting, and discussing the latest developments in online forums and on social media platforms. The authenticity of characters and situations is a widely discussed topic. Viewers' activities on the internet may also influence the general perception and the outcomes of a show, which makes the show less predictable for the producers. As an example, Enli (2009) mentioned the case of singer Susan Boyle in the second season of Britain's Got Talent. Boyle's fame was largely based on viewers' distributing the video of her stunning performance on social media platforms. She gained celebrity status even outside the United Kingdom, but soon some people questioned her status as a true amateur, and stories about prima donna behavior ruined her image. This may have been a reason why, in spite of all praise for her talent, she ended up being only second in the final competition; the audience preferred to award the members of a dance group who, after the media hype around Boyle, were obviously seen as more authentic representatives of ordinary people with an extraordinary talent (p. 488).

B. Motives for watching factual entertainment content

The appeal of reality TV programs to viewers has been explored by various researchers on the theoretical basis of the uses and gratifications approach (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rosengren, 1985), which assumes that viewers are frequently, but not always, actively engaged in the selection of media content. Their use of media programs can be either instrumental, i.e., in order to obtain gratifications meeting cognitive, affective, or social needs, or ritualized, i.e., out of habit. in an exploratory survey with 157 college students, Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) found that habitually passing time was the most important motive for watching reality TV programs--this activity had become a ritual in the daily routine of many respondents. So in many cases, the mode of engagement with reality TV was rather passive, and designed to fill time when no other activities are available. The second most salient motive was capturing the appeal of reality content and reality characters in opposition to fictional programs, followed by relaxation and social interaction (pp. 365-367). Another general survey about the motives of watching reality TV programs was conducted by Ebersole and Woods (2007), who surveyed 530 college and university students in the United States and Canada and identified five factors that explained program choice preference: personal identification with real characters, entertainment, mood change, passing time, and vicarious participation. The authors also found that the most popular programs were watched by the viewers because they found them "humorous," i.e., they were amused, or humored, by the "stupidity" of the characters and their actions (pp. 34-36).

Other studies also imply that superiority motives may drive the appeal of reality TV. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) centered their analysis on 16 basic needs and found that in comparison to non-viewers, reality TV viewers are in general more status-oriented, i.e., they have an over-average need to feel self-important. This need may be gratified by the feeling that they are more important than the ordinary people portrayed in reality TV shows, and they can fantasize that they could also gain celebrity status when they see people like themselves on TV. Furthermore, reality TV viewers are more motivated by vengeance than are non-viewers, a desire that is closely associated with enjoyment of competition (pp. 373-374). in a more recent study focusing on teens and pre-teens, Patino, Kaltcheva, and Smith (2011, p. 293) noted that adolescents striving for popularity and physical attractiveness are particularly likely to feel connected to reality TV, which leads to the assumption that satiating social and personal integrative needs may be an important motivation to watch reality-based programs, at least for this group.

Regarding the lay hypothesis that reality TV is popular because it appeals to the voyeuristic nature of the population, Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) and Nabi et al. (2003) in a similar study showed that voyeurism is present as a motive to watch these programs, but that it is not the key motive. This may be partly caused by respondents who are reluctant to report voyeuristic tendencies for fear that it might be perceived as socially undesirable, but Nabi et al. (2003, pp. 324-325) explained four reasons why voyeurism may in fact be less important than other motives: First, viewers watch with some knowledge that the targets are generally aware of their presence; second, the potential of fulfilling a voyeur's sense of illicit pleasure is limited by constraints on TV stations regarding the broadcast of explicit sexual material; third, the data of the survey indicate that people watch not to see sexual behavior per se, but to watch interpersonal interaction and because they are curious about other people's lives; and fourth, regular viewers often watch for motivations based on personal identity, which seems inconsistent with motives of voyeurs. However, the measure of voyeurism used for these studies emphasized sexual gratifications that viewers may derive from consuming reality programs and, as Andrejevic (2009, p. 321) argued, there may be "much more revealing scenes of love and rage" in fictional formats. if a different conceptualization of voyeurism is applied, one that defines it not as a sexual deviance, but as a commonly occurring fascination with access to private details of other people's lives, a "non-pathological" voyeurism is likely to be an important gratification for reality TV viewers (Baruh, 2009, p. 207). As a result of a study combining a survey administered to television viewers and a content analysis of 15 different reality TV formats, Baruh (2009, p. 190) suggested that scenes which adopt a "fly on the wall" perspective, take place in private settings, contain nudity, and/or include gossip contribute to the voyeuristic appeal of a reality TV program.

A differentiation between regular and casual viewers has to be made, since gratifications obtained from reality TV depend on the amount of TV watching. The more people watch TV for entertainment, relaxation, as a habitual pasttime and as a basis for social interactions with others, the more likely they are to develop a greater affinity for reality TV programs. in other words, the reality genre is rather unlikely to attract new audiences or lead to high consumption of TV unless those tendencies are already pronounced (Papacharissi & Mendelson, 2007, pp. 367-368). in comparison to casual viewers, regular reality TV viewers receive stronger and more varied gratifications; not surprisingly, parasocial interaction is a particularly important motive for regular viewers who have the possibility to develop parasocial relationships with participants in serialized shows (Nabi et al., 2003, p. 320-322). An important condition for positive parasocial ties is the ability to name a favorite reality TV character. Ho (2006, p. 20) found in her survey that respondents who had chosen a favorite character developed quite strong ties and found the shows much more appealing than people who didn't name a favorite character. The latter group scored higher in their beliefs that reality TV contestants are motivated by selfish goals, such as acquiring fame and winning prize money. Viewers who do not watch reality TV regularly enough to have favorite characters thus often have a stereotyped perception of the protagonists in these shows, which may explain why they are not interested in the genre.

The appeal of reality TV shows also depends on how realistic they are judged by the viewers. People enjoying reality TV for its entertaining and relaxing value tend to perceive the content of reality shows as more realistic than people with less affinity to the genre. This implies that in order to obtain the gratification of entertainment by watching reality TV, people first have to accept the realism of its content (Papacharissi & Mendelson, 2007, p. 367). Although most consumers do not believe that the programs are entirely real, they likely find them more real than other types of programming (Nabi et al., 2003, p. 327).

The uses and gratifications paradigm can be linked to another construct explaining the appeal of entertainment programs: the notion of enjoyment. in their study comparing viewers' enjoyment of fictional and reality programs, Nabi et al. (2006, p. 425) considered not only a set of gratifications previously sought or obtained from TV programming, such as parasocial relationships or learning, but also other factors that might associate with the enjoyment of entertainment programs. Program interest and enjoyment may be caused by perceptions of drama and suspense, as well as by emotional reactions as suggested by the mood management theory (e.g., Zillmann, 1988). On this basis, the researchers depict a differentiated view of emotional and cognitive assessments predicting enjoyment. While for fiction, suspense and pensiveness enhanced, and surprise detracted from enjoyment, for reality TV in general voyeurism, happiness, surprise, and relief positively associated with, and anger detracted from enjoyment (Nabi et al., 2006, p. 431). A more detailed analysis however revealed that each reality TV subgenre evinced different patterns of gratification, and that reality programs may differ as much from one another as they may differ from fiction. For instance, suspense is positively related to enjoyment of casting shows where viewers can guess the winner, but it is negatively associated with enjoyment of crime programs such as America's Most Wanted, in which it may be upsetting to see that the portrayed criminals are still on the loose. Voyeurism was identified as a significant predictor of enjoyment for several reality TV subgenres (reality-drama, romance, and game), but not for fictional programs, so the attraction of watching real people may still be a key feature for viewers preferring reality TV to fictional contents (pp. 440-442).

C. Case studies for various subgenres

The diversity of the genre and different predictors of enjoyment for various subgenres have led to a wide range of more specific studies about the appeal of particular reality TV programs for their viewers. only a few examples can be presented in this context. in a comparative study, Barton (2009) analyzed a corporate-themed casting show (The Apprentice), a serialized dating game show (The Bachelor), and a gamedoc with contestants battling extreme conditions (Survivor) by examining the differences between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained by the viewers. The results show that personal utility (relaxation, escapism, uniqueness of the program) is seen as a more important gratification for all three formats than social utility (keeping up with others who watch the show, talking about it), which may reflect the fact that reality shows have become more and more individualized and specific with the ongoing diversification of the genre (pp. 473-474). Perceived realism does not determine the appeal of each analyzed show to the same extent. While this factor is rather important in Survivor, this is not the case in The Bachelor, which features a highly unlikely plot (25 women competing over one man). Conversely, the romantic elements in this show result in a higher level of obtained gratifications in terms of social utility than the minimalist conditions in Survivor (pp. 469-470).

Due to their high audience ratings and their combination of elements from various other genres, casting shows are a particularly popular research field. Several German researchers have analyzed how adolescents as a very important target group (Hackenberg & Hajok, 2010, p. 60; Hajok & Selg, 2010, p. 61) perceive these shows. According to Klaus and O'Connor (2010), the main functions of casting shows for adolescents are providing topics for conversation, providing topics for discussions about ethical questions, and satiating integrative needs in cultural and social fields such as nation, race, class, or gender. Seeking entertainment, fun and thrill, and avoiding boredom are the main motives for watching the shows; while girls have a stronger interest in the outcomes of the competition (Gotz & Gather, 2010, p. 53), boys like to watch the candidates' behavior and to trash talk about them (Hajok & Selg, 2010, p. 61). Most 12- to 17-year-old viewers are aware of the commercial intentions of casting shows; pupils on a lower education level are more likely to believe that the producers want to organize a fair competition and to give the candidates "a real chance" (Gotz & Gather, 2010, pp. 54-58).

Dover and Hill (2007) analyzed lifestyle and makeover programs by looking at their production and reception. Viewers associated such programs rather with light entertainment than with factual information and a didactic approach: "Those who enjoy makeover shows do so because of the programs' emotional and entertaining content; they do not tend to have high expectations of watching informative or true-to-life content" (p. 24). in the reception of coaching shows such as Supernanny, cognitive motives seem to play a more important role. Viewers compare the protagonists' everyday life with their own one, feel relieved to see that other people have similar, or more serious, problems, and like to know how other people can solve their problems. Voyeurism and experiencing superiority over the helpless protagonists portrayed in these shows are also present as motives, but less important (Grimm, 2010, p. 245; Lauber & Wurfel, 2010, p. 68).

Supernanny was also the topic of a study comparing the reception of a reality TV program in various countries. Grimm (2010) found that the recommendations given by the nannies did not represent the same parenting style in all analyzed countries and that the success of the format varied. The British original, propagating an authoritarian parenting style, and the German program with medium authoritarian and democratic tendencies were very successful, as well as the Spanish and Brazilian versions boosting rather democratic-permissive recommendations. In contrast, audience ratings of the Austrian program, recommending a distinctly more democratic parenting style than the program of the German neighbors, stayed below expectations, and the show was cancelled after three seasons. Viewers' expectations regarding the recommendations given by the nanny may thus depend on specific educational traditions in their country (pp. 229-235).

D. Reality TV, neoliberalism, and "technologies of the self"

Sociologist David Grazian argued that "the narrative conventions of reality TV echo the most central policymaking paradigm in America in the past decade: the neoliberal agenda" (2010, p. 68). in this context, various scholars have discussed the role of reality TV in communicating and supporting neoliberal values. Neoliberalism can be defined as a range of discourses absolutely legitimating the market, but delegitimizing institutional forces seeking to counter the market, such as the state and the social (Couldry, 2008, p. 4). This worldview has generated specific trends which have accelerated globally since the 1980s, such as spending cuts on public services, economic deregulation, privatization of state-owned institutions in the name of efficiency, and the elimination of the concept of public good or community, replacing it with individual responsibility (Ouellette, 2009, p. 225). The importance of entrepreneurial liberty leads to an organization of social resources and human labor, which requires of its participants continuous loyalty and the acceptance of permanent surveillance in order to optimize products and to allow closely targeted marketing. For example, it may affect an individual's personal life in a way that employees have to be flexible in their working hours and "always available" for the company. But the system also demands accepting the fragility and impermanence of the opportunities it provides (Couldry, 2008, p. 3).

In fact, similarities between these characteristics and the settings of competitive reality TV shows are obvious: Contestants are provided with tasks, which they must fulfill on their own, and for which they have to take full responsibility for success or failure. At the same time, they are under constant surveillance, and even in cases of a good performance, they can be easily expelled from the show. in his analysis of Big Brother, Couldry (2008, p. 9-11) stated that the show legitimates the concept of constant surveillance, since this concept is the precondition for the viewers' pleasure to see the candidates in intimate situations. Furthermore, he argued that the performance "values" of Big Brother are striking for their fit with the demands imposed by neoliberal practice on workers. First, candidates have to obey an absolute and unquestionable external authority, the media producers; second, team conformity is also demanded, since the acceptance of compulsory teamwork is a basic rule of the game; third, candidates have to be "passionate" and to show a positive attitude, but must remain "authentic" to have success in the game--which reminds one of guidelines for employees as made for example by the British supermarket chain Asda, requiring emotional investment and demanding that every smile must be "a real smile" (The Observer, July 11, 2004); finally, in spite of all social dimensions of the show, the contestants are judged against each other as individuals.

Constant self-improvement is often suggested as the only reliable protection from the uncertainty about employment stability and opportunities in a neoliberal economy demanding flexibility, ongoing corporate reinvention, and a shift from production to branding (McGee, 2005, p. 13; Ouellette & Hay, 2008, pp. 99-100). The boom of the self-help industry with specialized literature, as well as contributions in magazines, the tabloid press, and TV broadcasts in the early 21st century contributed to that trend. For example, in the field of reality TV, makeover and casting shows present work on the self as a prerequisite for personal and professional success. The most obvious examples of self-fashioning on television are beauty and style makeover programs. Sender (2006), in her study about Queer Eye for a Straight Guy, as well as Ouellette and Hay (2008) in a more comprehensive analysis, discussed the role of these formats promoting "technologies of the self" with which candidates should be able to engineer better, more fulfilling lives.

In a similar way, coaching formats such as Supernanny or Honey We're Killing the Kids represent an entrepreneurial ethic of self-care, using a combination of disciplinary and self-help strategies to enable individuals to overcome their problems (Ouellette & Hay, 2008, p. 6). Another form of crisis intervention by television is the subgenre of charity programs (Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, Three Wishes, Miracle Workers), where private resources (money, volunteerism, skills) are mobilized in order to remedy personal hardship without state assistance. Reality TV may thus adopt functions of public welfare programs that have been cut back. However, only the most "deserving" cases of need, as determined by casting departments, are assisted (pp. 5-6).

5. Conclusion and Discussion

Reality TV as a research field is foremost complex and dynamic, as it has undergone an enormous diversification since the 1990s. Dozens of new formats were introduced every year. With this essay, we attempted to conceptualize reality TV as a meta-genre that includes various subgenres. Hence, examining the meta-genre's components, which may also apply to subgenres, most often serves the purpose to provide a theoretical definition of reality TV. Such components Include, for example, featuring ordinary people who are engaged in unscripted actions. in the viewers' perception, there is also more or less consensus about which formats are reality TV, but the boundaries between the subgenres are rather fluid. Nabi (2007) suggests mapping the reality TV landscape along the dimensions "romance" and "competition," whereas Klaus and Lucke (2003) distinguish between "narrative" and "performative" reality TV.

It seems important that reality TV's primary intent is to entertain an audience. The shows are less concerned about providing a journalistic function such as stimulating a political debate or to educate. it may well be that these are secondary goals, but reality TV's main goal is to engage their audiences to attract advertisers. interestingly, research shows that personal utility (relaxation, escapism, uniqueness of the program) is perceived as more important gratification than social utility (keeping up with others who watch the show, talking about it). Diversifications of the genre may have led to a more individualized approach of reality TV and to it being less a matter of social utility.

Our analysis of a worldwide boom and diversification of reality TV since the 1990s has revealed a complex interplay of factors that paved the way for the success of reality TV, locally and globally. First of all, technological developments allowed a multiplication of the available TV programs in the last two decades of the 20th century. This was caused by the development of cable and satellite TV, then by the introduction of digital channels. in countries where public-service channels previously were in a monopoly or predominant position, new commercial broadcasters could now enter the market. in order to conquer a good position in this market, the new players required popular and remarkable, but also comparatively cheap, programs to fill the additional program space. Reality TV formats fulfilled these needs: They are entertaining, they can be marketed as unique due to the authenticity of the participants, and they allow new forms of advertisement, merchandising, and audience participation in order to finance the production costs. At the same time, production costs are rather low since no scriptwriters and professional actors are needed, and the footage can be filmed with a new generation of compact and inexpensive cameras.

The overview of the genre further shows that modern reality TV formats are usually hybrids of existing genres: The docusoap as the prototypical reality TV genre, which is itself a mixture of documentary and fictional soap opera, is combined with game and talk show elements in reality soaps such as Big Brother or Survivor, with the classical talent contest and the variety show in casting shows, or with the traditional dating show in modern dating programs. in order to maintain high viewer interest, new combinations and variations are permanently developed: Mixing genres is seen as a strategy to reach audiences as large as possible (Lunenborg et al., 2011, p. 14).

Tendencies of the past years included the introduction of new settings and the increasing importance of celebrities as participants or coaches in reality TV programs. The settings in most newer formats tend to be much less artificial than in Big Brother or Survivor, and the success of makeover and coaching shows, as well as the more extensive use of coaching elements in recent casting shows, may reflect a growing importance of expert guidance and authoritative recommendations for the public (Grimm, 2010, p. 222). Public interest is particularly raised by dramatization of the content, e.g., by the choice of settings and the casting of participants in a conflict-provoking manner. A new stage of dramatization has been reached with scripted reality formats telling fictional stories but pretending for them to be "real." But the diversification of the genre has also left space for countertendencies, for example, spoof shows parodying extreme developments or formats intending to go "back to the essentials" such as casting shows with a stronger focus on the candidates' talents than on their looks or their behavior behind the stage. This may be illustrated for instance by the introduction of blind auditions in The Voice.

But essentially, global success and diversification of reality TV have only become possible thanks to new production routines in the television industry. Unlike fictional TV series, reality TV formats are just "global program frameworks that can be adopted on a national level in order to fit into different cultures" (Bondebjerg, 2002, p. 159). Most of them are not produced by the TV stations themselves, but by independent production companies developing the concepts and selling them to interested broadcasters all over the world. This new model allowed broadcasters to adopt formats, which have proven to be successful elsewhere instead of taking the risk to develop them on their own, which may be an essential advantage in a highly competitive market. As Andrejevic (2004, p. 12) concisely explains, "reality TV fits well the dictates of global media production insofar as it combines a local cast and local viewer participation with a customizable transnational format. What is exported is not the content itself but a recipe for creating a local version of an internationally successful TV show."

As our investigation shows, narratives of reality TV shows are not perceived as "real" in any case. In fact, 25% of an adult poll suggests perception of reality TV as made-up shows. A total of 57% believed that they show some truth, but are mostly distorted. But Only 30% said that it mattered whether the shows are real or not (Bauder 2005). On the other hand, voyeurism is put forward as a significant predictor of enjoyment for several reality TV subgenres. Hence, it may well be that viewers enjoy watching "real" people and not actors even though they believe the narratives are made-up. Viewers may identify more with reality TV participants because they embody similar lifestyles. In other words, such exposure experiences may be more easily integrated into their own lives than fictional programs based on more escape motives.

Hence, we suggest further study particularly on such differences between fictional and reality TV based programs to better understand what motives drive audiences to watch such shows and how media concepts and theories such as parasocial interaction, parasocial relationships, or social identification may differ between the two. Interestingly, as outlined in this review, cognitive development, age, and education influence how viewers perceive and conceptualize reality TV programs. Hence, we may well be much more prepared to understand audience's reaction to such programs by studying individual differences and how they influence the motives of exposure, the perception of the content, and the effects of watching reality TV programs.

References

Andrejevic, M. (2004). Reality TV: The work of being watched. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Andrejevic, M. (2008). Watching television without pity: The productivity of online fans. Television & New Media, 9(1), 24-46.

Andrejevic, M. (2009). Visceral literacy: Reality-TV, savvy viewers, and auto-spies. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV. Remaking television culture (pp. 321-342). 2nd edition, New York and London: New York University Press.

Aslama, M. (2009). Playing house: Participants' experiences Of Big Brother Finland. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 12(1), 81-96.

Baltruschat, D. (2009). Reality TV formats: The case of Canadian Idol. Canadian Journal of Communication, 34(1), 41-59.

Barton, K. M. (2009). Reality television programming and diverging gratifications: The influence of content on gratifications obtained. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(3), 460-476.

Baruh, L. (2009). Publicized intimacies on reality television: An analysis of voyeuristic content and its contribution to the appeal of reality programming. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(2), 190-210.

Bauder, D. (2005). Poll: Viewers beginning to tire from reality TV. The Spokesman-Review, September 18th, 2005.

BBC online (2006, December 1): 106m [pounds sterling] deal for Millionaire rights. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6198424.stm

Beck, D., & Jecker, C. (2012). Gestaltung der Programme--zzwischen Tradition und Innovation. In T. Mausli, A. Steigmeier & F. Vallotton (eds.), Radio undFernsehen in der Schweiz. Geschichte der Schweizerischen Radio- und Fernsehgesellschaft SRG 1983-2011 (pp. 337-383). Baden: hier+jetzt.

Benson, R., & Hallin, D. C. (2007). How states, markets and globalization shape the news: The French and US national press, 1965-97. European Journal of Communication, 22(1), 27-48.

Biltereyst, D. (2004). Media audiences and the game of controversy: on Reality TV, moral panic and controversial media stories. Journal of Media Practice, 5(1), 7-24.

Boddy, W. (2001). Quiz shows. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp. 79-81). London: British Film institute.

Bondebjerg, I. (2002). The mediation of everyday life: Genre, discourse and spectacle in reality TV. In A. Jerslev (ed.), Realism and "reality" in film and media (pp. 159-192). Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.

Bourdon, J. (2004). Old and new ghosts: Public service television and the popular--A history. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(3), 283-304.

Brauck, M. (2009). TV-Formate: Die Reality-Falle. Der Spiegel, (43), 86-88.

Bruzzi, S. (2000). New documentary: A critical introduction. New York: Routledge.

Bruzzi, S. (2001a). Docusoaps. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp. 132-134). London: British Film institute.

Bruzzi, S. (2001b). Observational ("fly-on-the-wall") documentary. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp. 129-132). London: British Film institute.

Caramanico, J. (2011, October 30). 'Jersey Shore' arrives in academia. Discuss. New York Times. October 30th, 2011. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/31/arts/television/jersey-shore-has-its- day-at-university-of-chicago.html?_r=3&ref=arts.

CBS (2012). CBS casting. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.cbs.com/casting.

Chalaby, J. K. (2011). The making of an entertainment revolution: How the TV format trade became a global industry. European Journal of Communication, 26(4), 293-309.

Clavien, G. (2003). La replique du service public en Suisse romande. Media-Morphoses (Special Big Brother), HS1, 109-111.

Clissold, B. D. (2004). Candid Camera and the origins of reality TV: Contextualising a historical precedent. In S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp. 33-53). London and New York: Routledge.

Cohen, J., & Weimann, G. (2008). Who's afraid of reality shows? Exploring the effects of perceived influence of reality shows and the concern over their social effects on willingness to censor. Communication Research, 35(3), 382-397.

Cooper-Chen, A. (2005). A world of "millionaires": Global, local and "glocal" TV game shows. In A. Cooper-Chen (ed.), Global entertainment media. Content, audiences, issues (pp. 237-251). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Corner, J. (2009). Performing the real: Documentary diversions. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV. Remaking television culture (pp. 44-64). 2nd edition, New York and London: New York University Press.

Couldry, N. (2008). Reality TV, or the secret theater of neoliberalism. The Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 30(3), 3-13.

de Mooij, M. (2010). Global marketing and advertising. Understanding cultural paradoxes. 3rd ed., Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC: Sage.

Dhoest, A. (2004). "The Pfaffs are not like the Osbournes": National inflections of the celebrity docusoap. Television & New Media, 6(2), 224-245.

Djang, J. (2010, May 2). President Obama trades jokes with Jay Leno. The White House blog. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/05/02/president-Obama-trades-jokes- with-jay-leno.

Dover, C., & Hill, A. (2007). Mapping genres: Broadcaster and audience perceptions of makeover television. In D. Heller (ed.), Makeover television: Realities remodelled (pp. 23-38). London: I. B. Taurus.

Dovey, J. (2001). Reality TV. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp. 134-137). London: British Film institute.

Duguid, M. (2010). Living in the past (1978). BFi Screenonline. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/583427.

Ebersole, S. & Woods, R. (2007). Motivations for Viewing Reality Television: A Uses and Gratifications Analysis. Southwestern Mass Communication Journal, 23(1), 23-42.

EBU--European Broadcasting Union (2012). Eurovision Song Contest history. Facts & trivia. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/facts-figures.

Enli, G. S. (2009). Mass communication Tapping into participatory culture exploring Strictly Come Dancing and Britain's Got Talent. European Journal of Communication, 24(4), 481-493.

Fitzgerald, K. (2003, May 12). So many realities, so few slots. Advertising Age, 74(19). Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://adage.com/article/news/realities slots/49114.

Foster, D. (2004). "Jump in the pool": The competitive culture of Survivor fan networks. in S. Holmes & D. Jermin (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp. 270-289). London and New York: Routledge.

Franco, J. (2008). Extreme Makeover: The politics of gender, class, and cultural identity. Television & New Media, 9(6), 471-486.

Ganz-Blattler, U. (2005, June 15). Genres zwischen Fiktion und Dokumentation. Versuch einer Neubestimmung. Medienheft, (23). Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.medienheft.ch/dossier/bibliothek/d23_Ganz-BlaettlerUrsula.pdf.

Gillan, J. (2004). From Ozzie Nelson to Ozzy Osbourne: The genesis and the development of the reality (star) sitcom. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp. 54-70). London and New York: Routledge.

Gorman, B. (2011, January 7). "Jersey Shore" season premiere draws record 8.45 million viewers. TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2011/01/07/jerseyshore-season-premiere-draws- 8-4-million-sets-mtv-all-time-series-high/77688.

Gotz, M. (2012). Wie Kinder und Jugendliche Familien im Brennpunkt verstehen. TelevIZIon, 25(1), 2-8.

Gotz, M., & Gather, J. (2010). Wer bleibt drin, wer fliegt raus? Was Kinder und Jugendliche aus Deutschland sucht den Superstar und Germany's Next Topmodel mitnehmen. TelevIZIon, 23(1), 56- 63.

Gray, J. (2009). Cinderella burps: Gender, performativity, and the dating show. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 260-277). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Grazian, D. (2010). Neoliberalism and the realities of reality TV. Contexts, 9(2), 68-71.

Griffen-Foley, B. (2004). From Tit-Bits to Big Brother: A century of audience participation in the media. Media, Culture & Society, 26(4), 533-548.

Grimm, J. (2010). From reality TV to coaching TV: Elements of theory and empirical findings towards understanding the genre. In A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp. 211-258). New York: Nova.

Grindstaff, L. (2011). Just be yourself--only more so: ordinary celebrity. in M. M. Kraidy & K. Sender (eds.), The politics of reality television: Global perspectives (pp. 44-58). London and New York: Routledge.

Hackenberg, A., & Hajok, D. (2010). Castingshows und Coachingsendungen im Fernsehen: Eine Untersuchung zur Nutzung und Bewertung durch Jugendliche und junge Erwachsene. tv diskurs, (51), 58-60.

Hajok, D., & Selg, O. (2010). Castingshows im Urteil ihrer Nutzer. tv diskurs, (51), 61-65.

Hall, A. (2003). Reading realism: Audiences' evaluation of the reality of media texts. Journal of Communication, 53(4), 624-641.

Hall, A. (2006). Viewers' perceptions of reality programs. Communication Quarterly, 54(2), 191- 211.

Hall, A. (2009). Perceptions of the authenticity of reality programs and their relationships to audience Involvement, enjoyment, and perceived learning. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(4), 515-531.

Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Hanitzsch, T., & Mellado, C. (2011). What shapes the news around the world? How journalists in eighteen countries perceive influences on their work. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 16, 404-426.

Hearn, A. (2009). Hoaxing the "real": on the metanarrative of reality television. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 165-178). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Hellmueller, L. C., & Aeschbacher, N. (2010). Media and celebrity: Production and consumption of "wellKnownness." Communication Research Trends, 29(4), 3-35.

Hendershot, H. (2009). Belabored reality: Making it work on The Simple Life and Project Runway. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 243-259). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Hetsroni, A., & Tukachinsky, R. H. (2003). "Who wants to be a millionaire" in America, Russia, and Saudi Arabia: A celebration of differences or a unified global culture? The Communication Review, 6(2), 165-178.

Hill, A., Weibull, L., & Nilsson, A. (2007). Public and popular: British and Swedish audience trends in factual and reality television. Cultural Trends, 16(1), 17-41.

Ho, H. (2006, June 16). Parasocial identification, reality television, and viewer self-worth. Paper presented at the 56th annual meeting of the international Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany. Retrieved March 14, 2011 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p93143_index.html

Holmes, S. (2004). "But this time you choose!" Approaching the "interactive" audience in reality TV. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(2), 213-231.

Holmes, S., & Jermyn, D. (2004). introduction: Understanding reality TV. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp. 1-32). London and New York: Routledge.

Hong, Y.-Y. (2009). A dynamic constructivist approach to culture: Moving from describing culture to explaining culture. In R. S. Wyer, C.-Y. Chiu & Y.-Y. Hong (eds.), Understanding culture: Theory, research, and application (pp. 3-25). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

James, C. (2003, January 26). Bachelor No.1 and the birth of reality TV. The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/26/movies/television-radio-bachelor-no- 1-and-the-birthof-reality-tv.html.

Jenkins, H. (2009). Buying into American idol: How we are being sold on reality television. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 343-362). 2nd edition, New York and London: New York University Press.

Jermyn, D. (2004). "This is about real people!" Video technologies, actuality and affect in the television crime appeal. In S. Holmes & D. Jermyn, (eds.), Understanding reality television (pp. 71-90). London and New York: Routledge.

Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and gratifications research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.

Kilborn, R. M. (2003). Staging the real. Factual TV programming in the age of Big Brother. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press.

King, S. W. (1976). Reconstructing the concept of source perceptions: Toward a paradigm of source appropriateness. Western Speech Communication, 40(4), 216-225.

Klaus, E., & Lucke, S. (2003). Reality TV: Definition und Merkmale einer erfolgreichen Genrefamilie am Beispiel von Reality Soap und Docu Soap. Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft, 51 (2), 195-212.

Klaus, E., & O'Connor, B. (2010). Aushandlungsprozess im Alltag: Jugendliche Fans von Castingshows. In J. Roser, T. Thomas & C. Peil (eds.), Alltag in den Medien--Medien im Alltag (pp. 48-72). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften.

Kompare, D. (2009). Extraordinarily ordinary: The Osbournes as "An American Family." in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 100-119). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Kraidy, M. M. (1999). The global, the local, and the hybrid: A native ethnography of glocalization. Critical Studies In Mass Communication, 16(4), 456-476.

Kruger, U. M. (2010). Factual entertainment--Fernsehunterhaltung im Wandel. Programmanalyse 2009-Teil 1: Sparten und Formen. Media Perspektiven, (4), 158-181.

Langdale, J. V. (1997). East Asian broadcasting industries: Global, regional, and national perspectives. Economic Geography, 73, 305-321.

Lauber, A., & Wurfel, M. (2010). Coachingsendungen im Urteil ihrer Nutzer. tv diskurs, (51), 66-71.

Lewis, T. (2010). Mobile makeovers: Global and local lifestyles and identities in reality formats. in A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp. 189-210). New York: Nova.

Lewis, T. (2011). Globalizing lifestyles? Makeover television in Singapore. in M. M. Kraidy & K. Sender (eds.), The politics of reality television: Global perspectives (pp. 78-92). London and New York: Routledge.

Livio, o. (2010). Performing the nation: A cross-cultural comparison of idol shows in four countries. in A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp. 165-188). New York: Nova.

Lundy, L. K., Ruth, A. M., & Park, T. D. (2008). Simply irresistible: Reality TV consumption patterns. Communication Quarterly, 56(2), 208-225.

Lunenborg, M., Martens, D., Kohler, T., & Topper, C. (2011): Skandalisierung im Fernsehen. Strategien, Erscheinungsformen und Rezeption von Reality TV Formaten. Berlin: Vistas.

McCarthy, A. (2009). "Stanley Milgram, Allen Funt and Me": Postwar social science and the first wave of reality TV. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 23-43). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

McCroskey, J. C. (1966). Scales for the measurement of ethos. Speech Monographs, 33, 65-72.

McCroskey, J. C., & Young, T. J. (1981). Ethos and credibility: The construct and its measurement after three decades. Central States Speech Journal, 32(1), 24-34.

McGee, M. (2005). Self-help Inc.: Makeover culture in American life. Oxford/New York: oxford University Press.

Murray, S. (2009). "I think we need a new name for it": The meeting of documentary and reality TV. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 65-81). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Murray, S., & Ouellette, L. (2009). Introduction. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 1-20). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Nabi, R. L. (2007). Determining dimensions of reality: A concept mapping of the reality TV landscape. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51 (2), 371-390.

Nabi, R. L., Biely, E. N., Morgan, S. J., & Stitt, C. R. (2003): Reality-based television programming and the psychology of its appeal. Media Psychology, 5, 303-330.

Nabi, R. L., Stitt, C. R., Halford, J., & Finnerty, K. L. (2006). Emotional and cognitive predictors of the enjoyment of reality-based and fictional television programming: An elaboration of the uses and gratifications perspective. Media Psychology, 8, 421-447.

Neuliep, J., Hintz, S., & McCroskey, J. C. (2005). The influence of ethnocentrism in organizational contexts: Perceptions of interviewee and managerial attractiveness, credibility, and effectiveness. Communication Quarterly, 53(1), 41-56.

The Observer. (2004, July 11): Where it Asda be a real smile. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2004/jul/11/supermarkets.

Ouellette, L. (2009). "Take responsibility for yourself": Judge Judy and the neoliberal citizen. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 223-242). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

Ouellette, L., & Hay, J. (2008). Better living through reality TV. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Paek, H.-J. (2005). Understanding celebrity endorsers in cross-cultural contexts: A content analysis of South Korean and US newspaper advertising. Asian Journal of Communication, 15(2), 133-153.

Palmer, G. (2004). 'The new you': Class and transformation in lifestyle television. in S. Holmes & D. Jermyn (eds.), Understanding reality television (p. 173-190). London and New York: Routledge.

Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L. A., & Rosengren, K. E. (1985). Uses and gratifications research: The past ten years. in K. E. Rosengren, L. A. Wenner & P. Palmgreen (eds.), Media gratifications research: Current perspectives (pp. 11-37). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Papacharissi, Z., & Mendelson, A. L. (2007). An exploratory study of reality appeal: Uses and gratifications of reality TV shows. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51 (2), 355-370.

Patino, A., Kaltcheva, V. D., & Smith, M. F. (2011). The appeal of reality television for teen and pre-teen audiences: The power of "connectedness" and psycho demographics. Journal of Advertising Research, 51(1), 288-297.

Popular Mechanics (2008, March 28). The 10 most prophetic sci-fi movies ever. Retrieved May 22, 2012 from http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/digital/fact-vs-fiction/ 4256186.

Price, E. (2010). Reinforcing the myth: Constructing Australian identity in 'reality TV'. Continuum: Journal Of Media & Cultural Studies, 24(3), 451-459. Reiss, S., & Wiltz, J. (2004). Why people watch reality TV. Media Psychology, 6, 363-378.

Riley, S. G. (2010). Temporary celebrity. in S. G. Riley (ed.), Star struck: An encyclopedia of celebrity culture (pp. 294-299). Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press.

Riverol, A. R. (1992). Live from Atlantic City: A history of the Miss America Pageant. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.

Rose, R. L., & Wood, S. L. (2005). Paradox and the consumption of authenticity through reality television. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 284-296.

Sender, K. (2006). Queens for a day: Queer Eye for a Straight Guy and the neoliberal project. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 23(2), 131-151.

Shattuc, J. (2001). Confessional talk shows. In G. Creeber (ed.), The television genre book (pp. 84-87). London: British Film institute.

Shearman, S. M. (2008). Culture, values, and cultural variability: Hofstede, Inglehart, and Schwartz's approach. Paper presented at the International Communication Association.

Shoemaker, P. J., & Vos, T. P. (2009). Gatekeeping theory. New York / Abingdon: Routledge.

Thornborrow, J., & Morris, D. (2004). Gossip as strategy: The management of talk about others on reality TV show "Big Brother." Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8(2), 246-271.

Tincknell, E., & Raghuram, P. (2002). Big Brother: Reconfiguring the "active" audience of cultural studies? European Journal of Cultural Studies, 5(2), 199-215.

Ting-Toomey, S., & Chung, L. C. (2005). Understanding intercultural communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company.

Tunstall, J., & Machin, D. (1999). The Anglo-American media connection. Oxford: oxford University Press.

University of Chicago (2011, October 28): The UChicago conference on Jersey Shore studies. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.striking.ly/s/pages/jerseyshore-conference.

Vena, J. (2010, July 1). Kim Kardashian gets her own Madame Tussauds wax figure. MTV News. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1642879.

Wahl-Jorgensen, K., & Hanitzsch, T. (2009). The handbook of journalism studies. New York: Routledge.

Waisbord, S. (2004). Mc TV: Understanding the global popularity of television formats. Television & New Media, 5(4), 359-383.

Walter, T. (2010). Jade and the journalists: Media coverage of a young British celebrity dying of cancer. Social Science & Medicine, 71(5), 853-860.

Watts, A. (2009). Melancholy, merit, and merchandise: The postwar audience participation show. in S. Murray & L. Ouellette (eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture (pp. 301-320). 2nd ed., New York and London: New York University Press.

West, E. (2010). Reality nations: An international comparison of the historical reality genre. in A. Hetsroni (ed.), Reality TV: Merging the global and the local (pp. 259277). New York: Nova.

Wheeless, L. R. (1974). The effects of attitude, credibility, and homophily on selective exposure to information. Speech Monographs, 41(4), 329-338.

Zillmann, D. (1988). Mood management: Using entertainment to full advantage. in L. Donohew, H. E. Sypher, & T. E. Higgins (eds.), Communication, social cognition and affect (pp. 147-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Daniel Beck, Lea C. Hellmueller, and Nina Aeschbacher daniel.beck@unifr.ch, lea.hellmueller@unifr.ch, nina.aeschbacher@hotmail.com