The language of learning styles.

Burris, Scott ; Kitchel, Tracy ; Molina, Quintin 等

TAKE A LOOK AROUND AT THE STUDENTS IN ANY CLASSROOM. YOU WILL FIND STUDENTS who love to work on group projects and those students who detest collaborative efforts. Some students are hoping for loosely defined criteria on assignments so that they can unleash their creative talents, while other students demand clearly delineated steps on how to complete their homework. This diversity among students can challenge teachers as they try to meet the needs of various learners in their classes. Consequently, the value of understanding individual learning styles possessed by students in the classroom is immeasurable. The study of learning styles has not only resulted in the development of valuable educational theory, but has also generated practical implications that can inform our classroom teaching on a daily basis.

Learning style (also known as cognitive style) is "the preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning: information processing and the formation of ideas and judgments" such that within a learner's style, the "patterns of attitudes and interests influence what a person will attend to in a potential learning situation" (Provost and Anchors, 1987, p. 182). There are several ways of assessing a person's learning (or cognitive) style. In understanding learning styles, teachers can understand common learning needs within groups of students. Student learning styles can impact a variety of areas in the classroom such as environment, student praise or reinforcement, class structure, and teaching methods.

Some of the learning theory literature relevant to education had an interesting start outside of the educational arena. For example, Witkin and associates (1977) identified field dependent and field independent learning styles based on studies conducted to determine why certain pilots who lost sight of the ground mistakenly flew their planes upside down (Garger and Guild, 1984, p. 9, 12). The goal of the research was to determine how the subjects defined what was upright. Through a series of tests, participants were required to adjust their bodies, or a rod and frame, to maintain an upright position based on the tilt of a room. Witkin and his colleagues (1977) concluded that how one interprets the visual environment determined their field dependence, or lack thereof.

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For some career and technical education (CTE) students, navigating the classroom can seem a lot like trying to keep a plane upright. Field dependent and field independent learning styles can influence how students interact with each other and the instructor. The student who is more concerned with what is happening in the lives of his or her classmates than the subject matter at hand is probably a field dependent learner. Field dependent individuals enjoy being around others and tend to be more tactful, warm, outgoing and affectionate toward other people (Witkin et al., 1977 as cited in Kitchel, 1999). In contrast, field independent individuals have no interest in keeping up with the latest gossip. Because of the lack of concern for the social aspects of life, field independent individuals often appear to be cold and distant (Witkin et al., 1977 as cited in Kitchel, 1999).

Teachers often vary in the types of reinforcement or praise that they provide students. Some students eagerly await a sticker or a smiley face on a test or assignment on which they have done well, or a piece of candy to reward a correct answer. These field dependent learners are motivated extrinsically, while field independent learners set performance expectations for themselves and are motivated intrinsically. While it is easy for teachers to acknowledge the efforts of field dependent students, it is a little more complicated to provide rewards to field independent learners who internalize their expectations. Field independent learners may appreciate the opportunity to evaluate themselves through the completion of individual progress reports. Teachers may choose to administer pre-tests and allow students who demonstrate adequate knowledge of the subject matter to work on an alternative assignment during lecture (this would serve as a reward for field independent learners). Also, with the growing popularity of cooperative learning activities in the classroom, teachers should explore new assessment patterns for rewarding field independent students in group activities.

Kolb (1971) was interested in how individuals learn and interact on a daily basis. He proposed that learning is a cyclical process comprised of four different learning modes: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization, and Active Experimentation (Kolb, 1984). In the Kolb Learning Style Inventory, Kolb (1999) described characteristics of learners in each of the different learning modes.

Concrete Experience promotes the act of learning through experience. Students who prefer to learn through Concrete Experience value relationships with other people, make decisions based on intuition, and tend to be more concerned with feeling as opposed to thinking.

Reflective Observation promotes the act of learning through reflection. Students who prefer to learn through Reflective Observation have the ability to consider and appreciate a variety of different viewpoints and perspectives and conduct thorough observations when making judgments.

Abstract Conceptualization promotes the act of learning through careful thought. Students who prefer to learn through Abstract Conceptualization appreciate the use of logic and systematic planning when analyzing ideas and utilize a scientific approach when trying to solve a problem or make a decision.

Active Experimentation promotes the act of learning by doing. Students who prefer to learn through Active Experimentation are willing to take risks, strive to accomplish tasks, and desire to exert an influence on others through action.

Based on prior recommendations from Svinicki and Dixon (1997), Sutliff and Baldwin (2001) identified several instructional activities that were appropriate for the different learning modes included in Table 1.

Are you an Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, Judgment type--a person who is very analytical and appreciates facts and details? Or are you an Extraversion, Intuition, Feeling, Perception type--a person who is upbeat and enthusiastic, very' imaginative, and looks to provide encouragement to others? The Myers Briggs concept of psychological type, as well as use of the MBTI as a diagnostic tool, has grown in popularity over the recent decade (Lawrence and Martin, 2004). While this concept of psychological type encompasses much more than learning style, the implications of type in the educational setting have been well documented. In order to understand the implications of psychological type in an educational setting, it is necessary to explore the four dimensions of psychological type.

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The first dimension of type consists of two kinds of attitudes--extraversion or introversion. The extraversion attitude is characterized by an outward focus of energy centered on people or action. By contrast, introversion is characterized by an inward focus of energy centered on ideas or reflection.

The second and third dimensions describe mental functions or processes.

The contrast between sensing and intuition is the second dimension. This dimension represents a preference for perceiving or taking in information. People with a preference for sensing tend to be more concerned with what is actual, present, current and real. People with a preference for intuition tend to be concerned with what is possible and new, and have an orientation to the future.

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The third psychological type dimension describes a person's preference for making judgments. The thinking judgment is concerned with logical consistency and analysis of cause and effect. The feeling judgment is concerned with establishing or maintaining harmony in relationships.

The final dimension of psychological type describes a preferred orientation. This orientation describes which mental process, perceiving or judging, is shown to the outer world. Lawrence and Martin (2004) describe this attitude as "the mental process that others tend to see" (p. 40). People who prefer judging use their preferred judging function, either thinking or feeling, in their outer life. People who prefer perceiving use there preferred perceiving function, either sensing or intuition, in their outer life. Psychological type can provide information about individual preferences for learning (Lawrence and Martin, 2004). The acknowledgement of preferences, through type, supports the idea that there are many different and equally valuable ways to learn. Table 2 displays some of the many effects type may have in the learning environment.

How can we design assignments to meet these different preferences? Projects such as the development of a marketing plan can reach a variety of learners. Students may select to work on the plan individually or with a partner. Also, students may get involved in evaluating current trends, developing a budget, or creating the presentation for the class. This type of assignment allows students to showcase their strengths in a variety of ways. McCarthy is credited with the creation of the 4MAT System--which is a structure for the organization of learning styles that concentrates on enhancing, communicating, teaming and problem solving for all levels of learning (Becket, 2005). This system recognizes four major areas of learning styles: Type One, Type Two, Type Three, and Type Four. Through research, and highlighting the use of left and right brain connections, McCarthy was able to identify the four learning styles typical of classroom students.

Type One, Innovative Learners, are interested in personal meaning. These students need to have reasons for learning, hence the reason for their favorite question: Why? Some of the best practices in the classroom that will connect to these students are cooperative learning, brainstorming, and integration of content areas (Becker, 2005).

Type Two determines that the learner is analytical and is primarily interested in acquiring facts in order to deepen their understanding of concepts and processes. According to About Learning (2007), this explanation seems clear as to why these students ask: 'What?'. They enjoy independent research and data analysis.

Type Three, Common Sense Learners, are interested in how things work. Their favorite question tends to be: 'How?'. According to Becker (2005) and Roske (2005), these learners enjoy experiments utilizing manipulative, hands-on, and kinesthetic experiences.

Type Four, dynamic learners, are interested in self-directed discovery. Dynamic learners enjoy teaching others and ask questions when searching for more information. These learners work best with independent studies, role-playing activities, and simulation games (Roske, 2005). Courses in CTE attract a varied representation of students who undoubtedly possess a variety of learning and personality styles. As a result, it is important to take the time to become well versed in the language of learning styles and implement new teaching and assessment methods, classroom and laboratory activities, and classroom management techniques in an ongoing effort to meet the needs of our diverse students.

References

About Learning, (2007). "Welcome to 4MAT: A Best Practices Instructional Method Based on Decades of Educational Theory and Research." Retrieved May 21, 2007, from: www.aboutlearning. com/what_is_4mat.htm.

Becker, M. (2005). "Bernice McCarthy 4 MAT System." Retrieved May 22, 2007, from St. John's University, Education Department Web site: www. students.m.csbsju.edu/mabecker/social%20ped/bernice_mccarthy.htm.

Garger, S. & Guild, P. (1984). "Learning Styles: The Crucial Differences." Curriculum Review, 9-12.

Kitchel, T. (1999). "The Relationship Between Personality Types and Learning Styles of Agricultural Education Majors and Minors at The Ohio State University." Unpublished thesis. Columbus, Ohio.

Kolb, D.A. (1971). "Individual Learning Styles and the Learning Process." Working Paper # 535-71, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Kolb, D.A. (1999). "The Kolb Learning Style Inventory"--Version 3. Boston, Massachusetts: Hay Resources Direct.

Lawrence, G. D., & Martin, C. R. (2004). "Building People, Building Programs." Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Gainesville, Fla.

Martin, C. (1997). "Looking at Type: The Fundamentals." Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Gainesville, Fla.

Provost, J. & Anchors, S. (1987). Applications of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Higher Education. Davies-Black Publishing. Palo Alto, Calif.

Roske, M. (2005). "Bernice McCarthy: Learning Styles"--4 MAT. Retrieved May 22, 2007, from St. John's University, Education Department Web site: www.students.m.csbsju.edulmjroske/Links_from_318/Assignments/Feb7th.htm.

Sutliff, R.I., & Baldwin, V. (2001). "Learning Styles: Teaching Technology Subjects Can be More Effective." The Journal of Technology Studies, 27(1). Retrieved May 20, 2007, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Winter-Spring-2001/sutliff.html.

Svinicki, M.D., & Dixon, N.M. (1987). "The Kolb Model Modified for Classroom Activities." College Teaching, 35(4), 141-146.

Witkin, H., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. K. (1977). "Field-dependent and Field-independent Cognitive Styles and Their Educational Implications." Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 1-64.

Scott Burris is an assistant professor et Texas Tech University. He con be contacted by e-mail at scott.burris@ttu.edu.

Tracy Kitchel is an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky. Fie can be contacted by e-mail at TRACY.KITCHEL@uky.edu.

Quintin Molina is a lecturer et the University of Arizona. He can be contacted by e-mail at qmdina@email.arizona.edu.

Stacy Vincent is on assistant professor at Murray State University. He con be contacted by e-mail at stacy.vincent@murraystate.edu.

Wendy Warner is an assistant professor at California Polytechnic State University. She can be contacted by e-mail at wjwerner@calpoly.edu.

Table 1
instructional Activities for Different
Learning Modes (Sutliff & Baldwin, 2001)

Learning Mode Instructional Activities

Concrete Small group discussion, specific
Experience examples, practical exercises,
 simulations, games, personal
 stories, role-playing

Reflective Creative problem solving,
Observation personal journals, discussion
 groups, brainstorming,
 thought questions, reflective
 papers, observations

Abstract Lectures, papers, analogies,
Conceptualization model building, theory-building,
 questioning

Active Case studies, fieldwork,
Experimentation projects, homework,
 laboratories

Table 2

Effects of type in the educational setting (from Martin, 1997).

Extroversion

May prefer learning through
discussion or working with groups.

Sensing

May prefer learning tasks that require
observing for specifics or memory for
facts.

Thinking

May learn better when the teacher
logically organizes material.

Judging

May prefer studying and learning in
a more steady and orderly way with a
drive to closure.

Introversion

May prefer learning through reading or
working individually.

Intuition

May prefer learning tasks that call for
imagination or attention to general
concepts.

Feeling

May learn better when they feel they have
a personal rapport with the teacher.

Perceiving

May prefer studying and learning in a
more flexible and informal way with an
orientation to discovery.