The historical, present and future ness of environmental education in India.

Almeida, Sylvia ; Cutter-Mackenzie, Amy

Initial Thoughts and Reactions to the ness of Environmental Education in India

Environmental Education (1) in India is strongly influenced by rapid economic developments, and the barrage of environmental issues brought along with it. This article discusses environmental education in India by considering its evolution from the Aryan times to the present. Environmentalism in India in the Aryan ages was a way of life, integrated into the everyday lives of citizens through culture and religion. Ancient scriptures such as the Vedas prescribed these more than 5000 years ago. For example Purushasukta in Rigveda, which describes the creation process, considers humans to be an integral part of the universal personality, "the entire creation is one and indivisible and entire universe constitutes a life unto which every aspect including the human is integrated" (Sharma, 2010, p. 47).

Even as recently as 1950 when the Constitution of India was drafted, living in harmony with nature and protecting it was prescribed as a fundamental duty of every citizen of India. However the India of today presents a radically different picture. This is reflected in the extent of pollution, overpopulation, rapid deforestation, and indiscriminate usage of natural resources. This article examines the reasons for this transition, in the context of the diversity that India presents in every realm. Cultures, traditions and religions vary dramatically across India and can play an important role in environmental education and perceptions on environmental issues, thus giving India a unique environmental perspective. This article highlights the ness of environmental education in India, which makes it stand apart from the rest of the world. What gives environmental education its special flavour in India and how does this distinctiveness infuse itself globally? This paper considers such questions drawing upon key practice, policy and research developments not only in India but elsewhere.

Historical ness

When speaking of the historical ness of environmental education, this paper specifically discusses pre-1990s, the era prior to liberalisation of the Indian economy. In 1991 India dismantled its tight system of controls and permits, ushering in a new era of liberalisation and galloping to become the second fastest growing economy in the world (Chakraborty, 2008; Luce, 2006). Prior to liberalisation India's economic development was restricted and consequently the number of environmental issues were also restricted. The 1990's then could be seen as a transition point, the start of a new era.

India's first attempt at incorporating environment in education was initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in a movement called "Nai Taleem" of Basic Education in 1937. It aspired to create freethinking individuals with relevant skills to be able to act locally and aspire transcendentally for liberation. The aim was foster "reflective learners, skilled with useful knowledge, who were integrated into community life through engagement in productive work and who desired to undertake service for humanity" (Haigh, 2008, p. 244).

This movement ended once India achieved independence and Gandhi (1869-1948) was assassinated before his ideas were completely evolved. It has been replaced by the current conventional model based on colonial methodologies of thinking and is limited to the learning by rote techniques, where "free thinking" is not encouraged. Local and regional issues are often neglected and the main aim seems to be the production of "able" individuals who could contribute "economically", and meet the needs of rapid "industrialization" and "globalization" of the country.

Environmental education however is not new to India. Protection and improvement of the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife; and living harmoniously with the environment is embedded in the Constitution of India in articles 48A and 51 G (Government of India, 2008). It is also deeply rooted in the religious and cultural ethos of India where nature is perceived as an all-encompassing entity that needs to be protected and revered (Baez, Knamiller and Smith, 1987; Bussey, Inayatullah and Milojevic, 2008, Ravindranth 2000, 2007; Sarabhai, 1995). This is echoed by Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore who said, "the same stream of life that runs through my veins . runs through the world" and "the world is a living thing, intimately close to my life, permeated by the subtle touch of kinship, which enhances the value of my own being" (as cited in Haigh, 2008, p. 238).

Awareness and connection with Nature is an integral part of the Hindu culture; worship of flora, fauna, rivers, oceans, and mountains, in fact of anything that may be life sustaining, is considered part of religious/social observations with an ecological meaning. "Divinities as all pervasive, in all humans, all life forms" is a very distinctive feature of India's spiritual life (Shiva, 2005, p. 156). For example a tree is called "Dasputra" or "ten sons" because it provides for ten important needs, namely food, fodder, fertilizer, fibre, fuel, air, water, soil, shade and beauty (ParthaSarthy as cited in Baez et al., 1987). Strict instructions on the need to preserve the environment and protect it from degradation are part of this ethos and have been laid down in ancient Hindu scriptures like the Vedas, Puranas, and the Upanishads (Baez et al., 1987, Haigh, 2008, Ravindranath, 2007, Sarabhai, 1995). Protection of the environment and its connections with daily communal life has always been an integral part of the social fabric of Indian society (Ravindranath, 2007). This ethos has been very simplistically echoed by Gandhi's words "Live simply so that others may simply live" (as cited in Haigh, 2008, p. 243).

Transition from Past to Present: Landmark policies that shaped Environmental Education in India

Environmental education in India is under constant transition. The influential landmark developments that shaped environmental education in India is presented in Table 1. It provides a timeline of the important milestones in the development of environmental education in India both pre and post liberalisation. Whilst environmental education is part of the Indian ethos and was also promulgated by Gandhi through his Basic Education program, its formal entry into the Indian schooling system could be attributed to the Kothari Commission's recommendation (1964-1966). Another major thrust was the formation of the Centre for Environmental Education in 1984, which spearheaded numerous movements for the introduction and integration of environmental education especially at all grade levels within the school system. The Supreme Court mandates in 1991 and 2003 (Supreme Court of India, 2003) provided the necessary impetus for policy formation as seen by the subsequent changes in the National Curriculum Framework (National Commission for Education Research and Technology, 2005) and the National Council of Teacher Educators new curriculum for teacher educators (National Council of Teacher Educators, 2005).

Present ness

Presently, India is in the throes of industrialisation and development and is the second fastest growing economy in the world. The liberalisation of the economy has triggered intense growth in all sectors of the economy. This rapid development has intensified the concerns for the environment and the rapidly depleting natural resources (Rangarajan, 2009; Ravindranath 2000; 2007). In December 2003 the Supreme Court of India mandated the teaching of environmental education across all years of formal schooling. In 2005 the National Curriculum Framework was released and also the National Council for Teacher Education released a new curriculum for teacher education with a clear emphasis on environmental education. All the above policies appear to have provided a much-needed impetus in raising awareness of environmental issues in India.

Environmental Issues in India

Cuff and Goudie (2009, p. 358) identify four major areas of environmental problems and challenges in India. The first is the gross over population, which places increasing demands for resources that are often met through unsustainable means like the agrochemical agriculture practised widely in India. The second is the extreme poverty and need, which are stipulated to be the greatest polluters of the environment (Gandhi, as cited in Rangarajan, 2009, p. xviii). The third is the large number of urban centres, as 25 out of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world are in India (Barta & Pokharel, 2009). 60% of India's population lives in these cities (World Bank, 2009) in slum-like conditions, which place a huge demand on natural resources like food, water and building materials which affects not only the immediate urban, but also the distant rural environments. Finally India's diverse environment makes it particularly "difficult" and "fragile" as each region poses a different kind of challenge in terms of the environmental issues it raises (Joshi, 2005).

Curriculum and Policies

As is outlined in the earlier Table 1, the field of environmental education has recently received major impetuses in the form of the federals courts mandate and development of curriculum policies.

In December 2003, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling that it hoped would change the scenario of environmental education in India. The direction No. 4 issued by the Court read as follows:

We accept on principle that through the medium of education awareness of the environment and its problems related to pollution should be taught as a compulsory subject. Learned Attorney General pointed out to us that the Central Government is associated with education at the higher levels and University Grants Commission can monitor only the under graduate and post graduate studies. The rest of it, according to him, is a state subject. He has agreed that the University Grants Commission will take appropriate steps immediately to give effect to what we have said, i.e. requiring the Universities to prescribe a course on environment. They would consider the feasibility of making this a compulsory subject at every level in college education. So far as education up to the college level is concerned, we would require every State Government and every Education Board connected with education up to the matriculation stage or even intermediate college to immediately take steps to enforce compulsory education on environment in a graded way. This should be so done that in the next academic year there would be compliance with this requirement (Supreme Court of India, 2003, p. 1).

This was a follow up to a 1991 ruling which had directed that "through the medium of education, awareness about the environment and its problems related to pollution should be taught in all schools and this should be implemented by the State authorities" (Supreme Court of India, 2003, p. 1). The National Commission for Education, Research and Training (NCERT) was also directed to prepare the syllabus/curriculum for environmental education for all grades. This directive was not uniformly adhered to and hence was followed up by the 2003 directive that provided the government only one year to comply. In 2003 the Supreme Court also reviewed a curriculum framework prepared by the NCERT under its directions. The State governments were asked to develop textbooks using this framework and environmental education was made mandatory across all grades, in schools all over the country, from the year 2004-05. This directive, while giving a much-needed thrust to the cause of environmental education concerns, has also added to the strains of an already over-burdened educational system. While the mandate is of critical importance, it is still unclear whether it is being implemented and how effective the implementation has been.

The Supreme Court intervention seems to have provided a much-needed impetus to the cause of environmental education in India. Environmental Education is now compulsorily taught in most undergraduate institutions in India. This was achieved by direct action through the University Grants Commission (UGC), India's apex grant giving and policy making body, for all higher education organisations in India (Chhokar, 2010).

In schools this has been achieved mainly through directives to the concerning educational bodies. The National Curriculum Framework drafted in 2005 (NCERT, 2005) has been a big step in attempting to bridge the gap in environmental education. Its guiding principles are to connect knowledge to life outside school, ensure that there is a shift from rote memorisation and textbook centeredness to a rich curriculum that provides overall development. Section 3.9 is devoted entirely to Habitat and Learning, which in substance and spirit is equated to environmental education. In this section it is acknowledged that formal education has become largely alienated from the students "habitats", which in turn implies that the current education system is far removed from the current lifestyles of students. This section also asserts that environmental degradation is happening at an unprecedented pace and there are vast imbalances between the advantaged and disadvantaged. It substantiates the role of education in helping comprehend the roots and re-establish the links between education and habitat. An important concern addressed in the new framework is "making children sensitive to the environment and the need for its protection" (p. 6). Table 2 details NCERT recommendations for implementing environmental education in schools in India. In grades 1 to 3 it proposes the use of activities to teach environmental education. In grades 3 to 5 it suggests imparting environmental education through a separate subject named Environmental Studies (EVS). At the secondary grade levels it recommends an infusion based model and project based studies.

The National Council of Teacher Education maintains that the importance of environmental education is being widely recognised but "it is yet to get its rightful place in education, much more so, in teacher education" (NCTE, 2005 p. 1). In its guidelines for environmental education, also revised in 2005, the NCTE asserts that unless environmental education is prescribed as a compulsory and integral component of education and teacher education its message will not be conveyed to all (NCTE, 2005). However in the NCTE curriculum framework revised in 2009 although environmental education is mentioned not much emphasis is laid on it.

Practice

While undoubtedly establishing the necessity of environmental education in India, the Supreme Court (2003) ruling however has placed large responsibility on the State education boards to adapt the syllabi from NCERT to their respective education systems. How this will be done is not clearly defined and therefore the policy could be open to numerous interpretations and loopholes. There is currently little information available on how the different agencies interpret and implement this policy.

There have been efforts towards introducing environmental education in schools but they have been few and far in between (Joshi, 2005; Pande, 2001; Sarabhai, 1995). Pandya (2000, 2004) claims that efforts towards preparing pre-service teachers to teach environmental education have been made. However these efforts have been few or are unreported and hence unnoticed. Khirwadkar and Pushpanadam (2007) however maintain that most teacher education programs merely train teachers to adjust to the current system of education by transmission of information.

A few notable efforts have been made by organisations like the Bhartiya Vidyapeeth University's Institute of Environment Education and Research (BVIEER) and the CEE towards educating teachers. CEE in particular has played a pivotal role in preparing teachers to teach environmental education. Since its inception in 1984 it has worked tirelessly to promote environmental education through various programs some of which have involved teachers. It has established regional centres, which often act as resource centres for school students, teachers and teacher educators. CEE has been instrumental in publishing India's first international journal in the field, The Journal of Education for Sustainable Development. It has been working with teachers in conjunction with the government and other Non Governmental Organisations (NGO's) to help implement environmental education in schools. CEE has also been working in non-formal and informal education to enhance environmental awareness and promote action. It is also important to acknowledge the role of numerous NGO's now working towards raising environmental awareness and solutions. The 2008-2009 WWF directory of environmental NGOs in India lists 2342 such organisations working in a range of fields from nature and biodiversity protection to water conservation and promoting environmental policies (WWF, 2009). These programs are often keen on finding environmental solutions keeping in mind the religious sentiments of the people. For example the Ganesha festival celebrated with special fervour in Western parts of India celebrates the immersion of Ganesha idols in water bodies after a few days of worship. This would cause immense pollution of the water bodies with thousands of these clay/plaster-of-Paris idols with their toxic paints and decorations creating havoc to the water and the marine life. A novel solution promoted was the introduction of eco-Ganeshas and use of eco friendly decorations. These are made of mud, straw, paper and other biodegradable materials that cause least pollution (Daily News & Analysis, 2010). About 60,000 people pledged to use them for the following years celebrations. If the trend continues it should help considerably reduce the pollution caused by this festival.

However there has been no research conducted to gauge the longevity and effectiveness of these programs or to help identify the core needs of those working in the field--so that future programs could be tailored to meet those needs. Research on environmental education in India is still in its nascent stages. Very little data is available about research that has been conducted and published in the field of environmental education.

Patil (2006) in a review of research studies undertaken between 1990 and 2004 contends that the themes for research during that period included environmental awareness, developments of teaching methodology and learning styles, and curricular aspects of environmental education. Patil referred to studies by Gupta, Gogoi and Das who tried to evaluate environmental awareness amongst students. Also reviewed were studies by Indubala, Kidwai and Sen, which found that video instruction, field trips and conducive classroom environments influence students learning styles. Sunnetha, Tomar and Modak looked at the curricular aspects of environmental education and found that multi-disciplinary approaches including activity-based instruction helped improves student learning (Patil, 2006). Whatever little efforts that have been made in the field seem to have been restricted to quantitative studies dealing with students and their learning. There appears to be little research on gauging the perceptions and experiences of students, teachers and teacher educators. This is particularly striking given the widespread recognition of teachers and teacher education as vital in the implementation of environmental education.

This lack of research is a cause of concern as there are a number of important policies formulated without any studies on the efficacy of their implementation. Without adequate research on how these policies are implemented and what the ground realities are--there is every chance that these policies will be confined to paper only. Due to these concerns, the primary/first author of this paper is focussing her PhD study on the role of teacher educators in implementing environmental education in India. She is examining the ways in which teacher educators understand, negotiate, determine and implement environmental education. The aim is to examine the organisational culture of teacher education and its role in the implementation of environmental education and to study the qualities, issues and problems that enable and/or constrain the development and implementation of environmental education in teacher education. The study is still in its initial stages but findings point towards the lack of training and resources provided to the teacher educators, which at least in this instance meant a significant barrier in implementing the environmental education policies devised by the government and educational bodies. This gap in policy and practice could be attributed to a lack of policies backed by adequate research.

Another important finding is the overwhelmingly technocentric perspective of all the participants who believed that modern technology can solve our environmental problems and that although environmental preservation was important, development can never be sacrificed for its sake. An example is the following statement by one participant, "Science and technology has developed like anything you see. I think we can take sufficient measures with which we can take care of the environment and develop the country also".

In India there have been increasing trends towards sustainability and education for sustainable development (Chhokar, 2010; Joshi, 2005; Khirwadkar & Pushpanadam, 2007; Ravindranath, 2007). India's only international journal in the field is called Journal of Education for Sustainable Development. There is strong emphasis on the individual's "everyday behavioural change, rather than an actual connection to and affinity with the environment (be it other people, nature and/or animals)" (Knapp as cited in Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010, p. 353).

The current study once again highlights this with all participants expressing strong beliefs in education for sustainable development as the solution. When asked if they would consider sacrificing development over environment, all participants replied that it would be detrimental to India's future. In the words of a participant, "It (the environment) should be protected there is no doubt in that but again if sufficient care is taken I think the economic growth will not be decreased". Participants saw current developments as essential in alleviating poverty and improving standards of living and felt that if given a choice they would put development ahead of environmental concerns. This is far removed from traditional approaches to the environment in India.

Rapid economic growth has led to a section of the society having an increasing level of disposable income. This has fuelled materialism and a culture of immediate fulfilment of needs as opposed to having to wait for it. Globalisation has brought a vast number of choices to the current generation who also have the economic means to exercise their choice (Luce, 2006; Kamdar, 2007). The ancient Indian philosophies of "Karma" and "Nirvana" or salvation have become quaint to this generation. "Vedanta" and its beliefs of oneness of all life (not only humans) have been all but abandoned. Affluence was never glorified in the Indian culture. But attaining fulfilment (santosh) through simple living has always been promoted. Education was placed higher than power and hence sages and seers held higher status than rulers. Gandhi foresaw the troubles that materialism brought and famously pronounced "the earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need but not for anyone's greed" (Bahuguna, 2007, p. 6).

The liberalisation and economic growth has led to the formation of the "Nouveau Riche" class of Indians whose wealth allows them to satiate almost all material needs, leaving them with the time to indulge in environmental consciousness as a "fad of the day". The other section is a large populace trying to emulate and convert themselves into the former class described above. This group barely manages to make a living and for them environmental concerns would not be a priority over their more immediate need of income and success (Luce, 2007).

Future ness.... a research agenda

Concerns for the state of the environment both globally and locally have spurned numerous policy changes. In India there have been increasing calls to develop environmental consciousness especially among the younger generation through education. Federal mandates and policies are a step in the right direction. There is however urgent need to support these policies with research that will help in their implementation. Policies and directives are insignificant unless matched by efforts to put them into practice, and there appear to be gaps in this process.

The 4th International Conference on Environmental Education held in Ahmedabad had launched the concept of the "handprint", which measures personal accountability thereby making every individual responsible foe his/her won actions (Sarabhai, 2008). This approach will hopefully alleviate the feeling of helplessness that Indians feel, given the scale of the problems facing them. Measuring one's handprint places responsibility on the individual for improving the state of the environment. However the need to stay connected to the environment is equally important and this means forging connections with people, the trees, the animals and nature itself. Education that is confined to the four walls of the classroom will not be able to provide that strong love for the environment. These bonds can only be forged in the vast outdoors, in the local communities and through personal interaction and involvement.

Looking forward to a decade from now or even on to 2050 what is the vision for India? It will have to be an India that is rooted in its past and geared for the future. It will have to be an India that understands that materialism can be a big hurdle in its path. Carrying forward the traditional values and the connection with roots will have to be an important part of this vision.

Chalking up a research agenda for the future would bring the following questions to the forefront:

* To what extent are professionals involved, including pre service and in service teachers, teacher educators, principals and those designing the curriculum trained?

* What resources and funds are available to education colleges and how much is clearly earmarked for use in environmental education programs only?

* Are the people directly working in the field of environmental education involved in the policy-making procedures? Are the teachers, teacher educators and administrators of teacher training institutions consulted? How are the policy makers aligning their policies with the ground realities involved in teaching environmental education?

* What kind of research is being conducted to gauge the effectiveness of earlier programs and pave way for future programs? How are the factors that enable and/or constrain the effectiveness of environmental education in India being determined? In particular, are there any qualitative studies being conducted that would delve into the underlying issues?

* What steps are being taken to remove environmental education from the confines of the classroom and conduct this outdoors? How are we inculcating a love for nature, a passion for the environment and zeal to protect and preserve it amongst the children?

* What lessons are we taking from our past? How are we bringing forth our rich tradition and ancient knowledge to pave our future path?

There is a lack of research studies in India in the field of environmental education. Furthermore the few studies undertaken so far have tended to be mainly quantitative, revealing a wide gap in qualitative research studies. This is a matter of great concern and needs to be addressed immediately. Specific priority needs to be paid towards research in the effectiveness of environmental education programs conducted through school curriculum and textbooks. There is need to further study the impact of the numerous environmental projects that are being conducted in India. There are a few programs that educate teachers to teach environmental education. More needs to be done to assess the efficacy of these programs and replicate them if found successful. India has a willingness to bring about change, but what is needed is to ensure that the policies are made in line with the ground realities to ensure proper implementation. It is now the time to relook at the past and take stock. Mahatma Gandhi (as cited in Khoshoo & Moolakattu, 2009, p. 144) rightly predicted, "A time is coming when those who are in a mad rush today of multiplying their wants, will retrace their steps and say: what have we done".

References

Baez, A. V., Knamiller, G. W., & Smyth, J. C. (Eds.). (1987). The Environment and Science and Technology Education. Oxford, U.K.: Permagon Press for ICSU Press.

Bahuguna, S. (2007). People's Programme for Change. In S. Bahuguna, M Patkar, V. Shiva, S. C. Nair, N. D. Jayal, J. Bandhopadhayay & C. Singh (Eds.), India's Environment: myth and reality. New Delhi, India: The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage.

Barta, P., & Pokharel, K. (2009, May 13). Megacities Threaten to Choke India. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124216531392512435.html

Bussey, M., Inayatullah, S., & Milojevic, I. (2008). Alternative Educational Futures: Pedagogies for Emergent Worlds (pp. 235-252). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Centre for Environmental Education. (2010). School EE in India. Retrieved from http://www.greenteacher.org/?page_id=263

Chakraborty, C., & Nunnenkamp, P. (2008). Economic Reforms, FDI, and Economic Growth in India: A Sector Level Analysis. [doi: DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.06.014]. World Development, 36(7), 1192-1212.

Chhokar, K. B. (2010). Higher education and curriculum innovation for sustainable development in India. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11(2), 141-152.

Cuff D. J., & Goudie A. S. (2009). The Oxford Companion to Global Challenge. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cutter-Mackenzie Amy. (2010). Teaching for sustainability. In Gilbert Rob & Hoepper Brian (Eds.), Teaching Society and Environment (4th ed., pp. 348-363). South Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning.

Daily News & Analysis. (2010). Eco-Ganesha celebrates city's new green spirit. Retrieved from http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_eco-ganesha-celebrates citys-new-green-spirit_1443832

Government of India. (2008). Constitution of India. Retrieved from http://india.gov.in/govt/constitutions_of_india.php

Haigh M. (2008). The Sattvic Choice. In Bussey M., Inayatullah S. & Milojevic I. (Eds.), Alternative Educational Futures (pp. 235-252). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Joshi, M. (2005). ESD in India: Current practices and Development plans. Paper presented at the International Conference on Education for Sustainable Development. Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Kamdar, M. (2007). Planet India. New York: Scribner.

Khirwadkar, A., & Pushpanadam, K. (2007). Education for Sustainable Development : Implications for Teacher Education. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 3(3), 5-13.

Khoshoo T. N., & Moolakkattu J, S. (2009). Mahatma Gandhi and the Environment: Analysing Gandhian Environmental Thought. New Delhi, India: The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI).

Luce, E. (2006). In Spite of the Gods. London, U.K.: Little, Brown. National Commission for Education Research and Technology. (2005). National Curriculum Framework. Retrieved from http://www.ncert.nic.in/html/pdf/ schoolcurriculum/framework05/Currilular%20Areas.pdf

National Council for Teacher Education. (2009). National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Edcuation: Towards preparing professional and humane teacher. Retrieved from http://www.ncte-india.org/publicnotice/NCFTE_2010.pdf

National Council of Teacher Educators. (2005). Environmental Education Curriculum Framework for Teachers and Teacher Educators. New Delhi, India: NCTE.

Pande, A. (2001). Environmental Education in Rural Central Himalayan Schools. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(3), 47-53.

Pandya, M. (2000). Teacher Education for Environmental Education in India. Paper presented at the Third UNESCO Japan Seminar on EE in Asia Pacific Region. Tokyo, Japan.

Pandya, M. (2004). Continuing Professional Development in EE. Paper presented at the Eighth UNESCO Japan Seminar on EE in Asia Pacific Region. Tokyo, Japan.

Patil, A. (2006). The Development and Implementation of a Teacher Education Model in Environmental Science For Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Schools. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York.

Rangarajan, M. (Ed.). (2009). Environmental Issues in India: A Reader. New Delhi, India: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Ravindranath, M. J. (2000). Living Traditions. In D. Yencken, J. Fien & H. Sykes (Eds.), Environment, Education and Society in the Asia-Pacific: local traditions and global discourses. London, U.K. : Routledge.

Ravindranath, M. J. (2007). Environmental education in teacher education in India: experiences and challenges in the United Nation's Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 33(2), 191-206.

Sarabhai, K. (1995). Strategy for Environmental Education: An Approach for India. Paper presented at the North American Association for Environmental Education.

Sarabhai, K. (2008). Towards a Handprint for Sustainable Development. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 2(1), 1-3.

Sarabhai, K., Raghunathan, M., & Kandula, K. (2000). Status Reports: India. Ahmedabad, India: Center For Environmental Education.

Sharma, V. M. (2010). Environmental Pollutions: Ancient Solutions in the Light of Sanskrit Literature. In K. R. Gupta (Ed.), Environmental Education in India (pp. 169). New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd.

Shiva V. (2005). India Divided: Diversity and democracy under attack. New York: Seven Stories Press.

Supreme Court of India. (2003). M C Mehta-Petitioner versus Union of India and Ors--respondents. Retrieved from http://www.downtoearth.org.in/html/sc_directive.htm WorldBank. (2009). India country Overview 2009. Retrieved from http://www. worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAE

XTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~t heSitePK:295584,00.html

WWF Envis Centre on NGOs and Parliament. (2009). Directory of Environmental NGOs in India. Retrieved from http://www.wwfenvis.nic.in/directory_NGO.aspx

Endnotes

(1.) The broad focus of this study is situated within the formal education sector. There have been numerous initiatives in the non-formal and informal education sector. These initiatives have been discussed where appropriate, however the non-formal education movement is beyond the scope of this paper.

Sylvia Almeida ([dagger]) & Amy Cutter-Mackenzie

Monash University

([dagger]) Address for correspondence: Sylvia Almeida, PhD Student, Faculty of Education, Monash University, McMahons Road, Frankston, Victoria 3199, Australia. Email: scalm1@student.monash.edu

Author Biographies

Sylvia Christine Almeida is a PhD student in the Faculty of Education, Monash University. Her research interests lie in the areas of environmental education and its uptake in various contexts. Cultural experiences and their influence on environmental attitudes are her primary areas of interest. Her thesis is focused on understanding teacher educators' experiences in implementing environmental education in India.

Dr Amy Cutter-Mackenzie is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University. Amy is the Editor of the Australian Journal of Environmental Education. She currently supervises 12 research students, including Sylvia's PhD thesis. Amy is the Founder and Leader of the Sustainability, Environment and Education (SEE) Research Group. The SEE Research Group is focused on young people (early childhood--tertiary) and the ways in which they participate and engage in sustainability and environment. It is made up of academics (internal/external to Monash) and research students.

Table 1: Chronology of Key Developments in Environmental Education
in India (Adapted from Sarabhai, Raghunathan & Kandula, 2000, p.
130)

1964-1966 Report of the Education Considered the root of
 Commission--the Kothari Environmental Education
 Commission (EE) in India

1975 Curriculum for the Ten- First framework to
 Year School: An Approach explicitly indicate
 Paper and Curriculum for teaching of EE
 the Ten-Year School: A
 Framework

1984 1986 Establishment of the Centre CEE worked with different
 of Environment Education sectors--particularly
 (CEE) as a National Centre education-to spread
 for Excellence in EE under environmental awareness.
 Ministry of Environment and First National policy
 Forests Adoption of the indicated including EE in
 National Policy on schools.
 Education The National
 Environmental Awareness
 Campaign of the Ministry of
 Environment and Forests

1988-89 Environmental Orientation Called for orientating
 to School Education Scheme curriculum to include EE
 of the Ministry of Human
 Resources Development

1989 C.P. R. Chennai established Works towards promoting EE
 as a second Centre of in south India
 Excellence.

1991 First Supreme Court of The judiciary steps in to
 India mandate requiring the help control environmental
 University Grants problems--a first of its
 Commission to prescribe kind step.
 courses on the environment
 at all levels of higher
 education

2003 Second Supreme Court Requires every school in
 judgment mandating EE to be every state of India to
 taught across all formal teach EE.
 education institutions.

2005 National Council for A major step providing
 Teacher Education provides national level impetus for
 the EE curriculum framework the inclusion of EE in
 for teachers and teacher teacher education. School
 educators National curriculum now includes EE
 Curriculum Framework is and has to be mandatorily
 drafted--clearly specifies taught.
 the role of EE

Table 2: NCERT recommendations for implementing environmental
education in schools in India based on CEE website (CEE, 2010, p. 1)

 Grades Modes of transaction

 I and II Through Activities
 III to V Environmental Studies (EVS)
 VI to X Infusion Model
 XI to XII Project based study