Hemingway's clinical depression: a speculation.

Hays, Peter L.

In 1924, Ernest Hemingway, twenty-four years old until 21 July of that year, put on so much weight that his jowls are evident in photos of the era. Nothing in the biographies specifically accounts for such a change, nor does his published correspondence. In these accounts, there is no major illness reported, no extreme change of diet, nor any loss of exercise. His marriage to Hadley was still intact; Pauline had not yet entered their lives and caused marital stress. Why then the sudden accession of weight? We know that he inherited his father's depressive illness, the illness that finally caused his hospitalization and suicide,(1) but we have not tracked, because the evidence is not clear, the onset of this disease, even though we know that an associated symptom of depression is "change of weight," that "Appetite is frequently disturbed, loss of appetite being more common, but increased appetite sometimes being evident" (DSM-III-R 219). Nor has Hemingway's depressive illness, to the best of my knowledge, been accurately diagnosed as unipolar or bipolar, the first meaning suffering depression only, the latter referring to what is often called manic-depressive illness.(2) Let me suggest here that Hemingway's weight gain was a symptom of his bipolar mood disorder, a sign of the affective illness that would ultimately lead to his death. Let me also admit, up front, that I am not a psychiatrist or a psychologist, and that what follows is, as my title states, speculation. But I have found no other explanation for the significant physical changes that occurred, and the physical evidence seems to accompany changes in his writing and living patterns.

Let's begin with the physical facts and the pictures that record them.(3) Carlos Baker says "He was six feet tall and usually weighed 210 pounds. He had a tendency to put on weight and was once up to 260" (Life ix). Baker is talking about the older Hemingway; the younger one wrote Ernest Walsh in 1925, "I . . . am 27 years old, 6 feet tall, weight 182 lbs" (Reynolds 266).(4) Hemingway in January 1925 was only twenty-six years old, but since most of his acquaintances state that he was six feet tall, let's accept that much as fact. The Oak Park pictures and the wedding pictures (Sept. 1921, when Hemingway is twenty-two) show a slim young man, who, at six feet, weighs around 165-170 pounds [See appendix. Plate 1].

The addition of a mustache in Paris makes him look more mature than his years, but his weight seems fairly constant, despite the travelling he does to Turkey, Greece, the Ruhr, and Lausanne. His return to North America for the birth of Bumby puts him under the authoritarian rule of editor Harry Hindmarsh, who works him hard and sends him all over Ontario and to New York covering stories. Hemingway complains, first to Gertrude Stein:

I have understood for the first time how men can commit suicide simply because of too many things in business piling up ahead of them that they can't get through (SL 94, 11 Oct. 1923);

then to Ezra Pound:

Have worked steadily from six in the morning till two oclock in the morning and later since came on sheet. Been on four long out of town trips and returned to find stuff piled up that would keep working all nights to catch up. Cant keep food down due to stomach shot from nervous fatigue. Have insomnia. (SL 96, 13 Oct. 1923)

A picture taken beside Leicester on his one-day Christmas trip back to Oak Park before he, Hadley, and Bumby returned to France in January confirms this [See Appendix. Plate 2]. Hemingway's clothes are baggy on him; he looks like Chaplin's Little Tramp; he may weigh less then 160.

Back in Paris, free from Hindmarsh's tyranny and the daily grind of newspaper work, Hemingway has a sudden release of creative energy:

They all went exactly like that, one story after another, exploding out of his head perfectly on paper needing little revision. It was like an emotional rush. . . . In less than three Paris months, Hemingway wrote eight of the best stories he would ever write. . . . (Reynolds 167)

The period to which Reynolds refers is the late winter and spring of 1924, after Hemingway had secured an apartment for his family on rue Notre Dame des Champs in the second week of February. During this same period, while Hemingway is rapidly turning out the stories that will comprise In Our Time, he is also acting as Ford Madox Ford's assistant editor on the transatlantic review, reading manuscripts, typing parts of Gertrude Stein's The Making of Americans for inclusion in the review, sending out manuscripts to various publications in the U.S. and to Germany for Der Querschnitt: Ford's reminiscence about meeting Hemingway in Pound's apartment, has Pound say of Hemingway's shadow-boxing: "He's only getting rid of his superfluous energy" (Baker, Life 123). And indeed, in addition to his writing labors, Hemingway is also exercising regularly:

[Hemingway] boxed for fun with Harold Loeb, George O'Neil, and a young American . . . Paul Fisher. . . . Ernest and Harold Loeb played tennis on red-clay courts near the prison and the guillotine in the Boulevard Arago. Dr. William Carlos Williams joined them one day in May and they played until Ernest complained that his knee was giving out. . . . (Baker, Life 126-27)

[S]ometimes [he] boxed a little or played tennis with Ezra Pound. Returning from the courts, Ernest pretended that his racquet was a bullfighter's cape. He danced in front of trolley cars, executing . . . passes. . . . (Baker, Life 129)

The creative outpouring slackened in April after the completion of the eight stories: "Indian Camp;' "Cat in the Rain," "The End of Something," "The Three-Day Blow," "The Doctor and the Doctor's Wife," "Soldier's Home," "Mr. and Mrs. Elliot," and "Cross-Country Snow."(5) Hemingway took a trip to Provence to restore his creative energy, and on his return began "Big Two-Hearted River," but the feria at Pamplona interrupted work on the story, which Hemingway effectively completed in August, except for the revision necessitated by the removal of "On Writing" in November. In August he also wrote "Summer People," and, in the fall (September-November 1924), "The Undefeated." Sometime during the year, he also gained considerable weight [See appendix. Plate 3.]. Plate 3, taken in the courtyard of 113 rue Notre Dame des Champs, shows Hemingway's suit no longer unfilled: at twenty-five he has distinct jowls and his weight must be close to 200 pounds, if not more.(6) What explains Hemingway's sudden weight gain? He was exercising regularly, and George Breaker's mismanagement of Hadley's trust fund in 1924 meant they could eat out less often. And why, also, does he then suddenly lose that weight at the beginning of 1925?

The DSM-III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), is the standard handbook for analyzing and categorizing mental illnesses. Its "Diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Episode," include:

1. Depressed mood . . . most of the day, nearly every day.

2. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all activities most of the day, nearly every day.

3. Significant weight loss or weight gain.

4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.

5. Psychomotor agitation . . . nearly every day.

6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day.

7. Feelings of worthlessness . . . nearly every day.

8. Diminished ability to think or concentrate. . . .

9. Recurrent thoughts of death . . ., recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan[.]

At least five of the above symptoms have to he present during a two-week period and represent a change from previous functioning. Earlier, Hemingway's taking to bed and running a fever after getting Agnes von Kurowsky's "dear John" letter is abnormal and does suggest a predisposition toward depression, or perhaps the first depressive episode. But for the fall and winter of 1923, of the list of nine possible symptoms above, Hemingway displayed six (all but 5 and 7). He was depressed, hated his job and those he worked for, lost weight, could not sleep (as he wrote to Pound), and thought of suicide, as he wrote to Stein. In addition to those letters, he wrote Edward O'Brien (20 Nov. 1923), "Have felt pretty low and discouraged here . . . And am working 14 to 18 hours a day . . ." (SL 100). While Hemingway constantly griped in his correspondence, suggestions of suicide are not frequent, nor are complaints about an inability to eat. And the December 1923 photo confirms the weight loss. Only his strong ego protected him from feelings of worthlessness. In contrast, the spring of 1924 was an up period.

The DSM characterizes manic episodes as follows:

A. A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood.

B. During the period of mood disturbance, at least three of the following symptoms have persisted . . .

1. Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.

2. Decreased need for sleep . . .

3. More talkative than usual . . .

4. Flights of ideas . . .

5. Distractibility, i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli

6. Increase in goal-directed activity . . .

7. Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities which have a high potential for painful consequences, e.g., sexual indiscretions (DSM-III-R 217)

Furthermore, the DSM-III distinguishes between a full-blown manic episode with delusions and impairment of ability to function, and "hypomanic episodes," defined as follows:

The essential feature of a Hypomanic Episode is a distinct period in which the predominant mood is either elevated, expansive, or irritable and there are associated symptoms of the Manic Syndrome. By definition, the disturbance is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social or occupational functioning. (218)

Indeed, Dr. Ronald Fieve, one-time Director of the New York State Psychiatric Institute, says that "Many of the milder high states will be beneficial and appropriate to the individual, enabling him to achieve much of value by means of his driven, manic energy" (33) and also that the hypomanic "is hypercompetent and jumps into every situation that he wants to control. For him knowledge is power. He is hyperperceptive as well as hyperaggressive and hyperactive" (74). Finally, the DSM-III dates the mean age at onset of mania as early twenties (216), Of depression as the late twenties (220). According to Fieve, "Bipolar manic depression usually comes on in the early twenties and is characterized by a lifetime of alternating mild-to-serious highs and lows" (117).

Hemingway's period of explosive creativity suggests a hypomanic episode, as he experienced at least three of the diagnostic symptoms. Going through them, in order:

1. Hemingway is not only sure of his ability, but has convinced others of his talent with, to that time, little proof - he has published only Three Stories and Ten Poems and the vignettes of in our time. Edward O'Brien dedicated the 1923 edition of Best Short Stories of 1923 to Hemingway, and Eugene Jolas frequently mentioned Hemingway in his Tribune column. Sherwood Anderson, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Ezra Pound, among others, all sang his praises, and Ford Madox Ford put up with Hemingway's efforts to publish Gertrude Stein's massive tome and his sophomoric insults about contributors in the transatlantic review. As Fieve says,

. . . Manic grandiosity, when associated with people like Hemingway, Theodore Roosevelt, or Churchill, is grandiosity with a basis in fact. They are the biggest, bravest, and most powerful men in the world. For these few a delusion of grandeur coincides with the actual state of things; and if it does so, is it really a delusion? Psychiatry fails to provide the answer, since there is no psychiatric label for delusional grandiosity which grows into reality. (59)

2. Decreased need for sleep. During this period, Hemingway rose well before the sawmill started operation at 7:00 a.m. (Reynolds 162, 165) and before Bumby woke. In November 1923, four months before, Hemingway had written Gertrude Stein that Bumby fed at 6, 10, 2, 6, 10, 2 (SL 101), a four-hour schedule. At six months the baby should have been sleeping longer, but if not, Hemingway was rising well before 6:00 a.m. Nothing in the details of their social life indicate that the Hemingways went to bed early, nor do his friends or letters suggest any sleepfulness on his part during afternoons or evenings. To the contrary, there are instead comments on his "superfluous energy": "He had a way of . . . infecting those about him with his enthusiasm, taking them out of themselves, men older than he but caught up in his passion" (Reynolds 213).

6. Increase in goal-directed activity. He writes eight stories in three months, while also working diligently on the transatlantic review and with Gertrude Stein. During this period, he wrote no letters from 17 March to 2 May 1924, concentrating instead on his fiction (Reynolds 188). When Ford left for America in May to find funds to bolster the sinking review, Hemingway was greatly annoyed at having to undertake more editorial duties with "Big Two-Hearted River" unfinished, wanting very much to complete his volume of short stories before Pamplona in July (Reynolds 205).

These three measures of his behavior are adequate to indicate hypomania, but symptom seven, excessive involvement in risky activities, could apply to Hemingway's gambling on horse racing and boxing - he lost money on Firpo, betting against Jack Dempsey (Reynolds 165) - but his gambling does not seem excessive or out-of-control. However, if his writing bursts were accompanied by manic or hypomanic episodes, then the risky activity that may have accompanied such excesses of energy may well have been sexual. He begins his relationship with Pauline during his intense work on The Sun Also Rises, his affair with Martha Gellhorn occurs during the excitement provided by the Spanish Civil War and the writing of For Whom the Bell Tolls, his affair with Mary starts during the Second World War. As Scott Fitzgerald noted to Morley Callaghan, "I have a theory that Ernest needs a new woman for each big book" (Callaghan 161). But those activities are beyond the scope of this narrow study of late 1923 through early 1925, as is the relation of his medical depression to the dark view of life expressed in his fiction.

In Schruns, the winter of 1924-25, Hemingway's writing did not go well. The explosive output of the previous spring did not recur. Since the end of April 1924, he had finished only "Big Two-Hearted River" in August and then revised it in November, written "Summer People" (unpublished in his lifetime) in August, and "The Undefeated" (September through November) - just three long short stories in seven months as compared to eight short stories in three months. Instead, the pace of his correspondence picked up, and he wrote Robert McAlmon on 20 November 1924, that "I'm having a period of not being able to do anything worth a shit after this last story ['The Undefeated']" (SL 135, Baker's bracketed editorial insertion). Reynolds reports that

During the three-month vacation [from 20 Dec. 1924 through 14 March 1925], he was at the Taube [Hotel] sixty days and wrote thirty-three letters that survived. Because he seldom wrote letters when his fiction was going well, it appears that the three months was a dry spell . . . [and] it was going to extend another three months, the longest hiatus since he returned from the war. After finishing "The Undefeated"at the end of November 1924, Hemingway wrote only one significant short story ["The Battler"] during the next seven and a half months. (267)

And during this period, despite much eating and drinking - "His appetite was enormous. 'Every mealtime was a great event'" (Baker, Life 139) - Hemingway lost considerable weight, as Plates 4 and 5 reveal. They also show the beginnings of his first beard, reminding us of Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms:

"Othello with his occupation gone," she teased (257).

"All right. I'll grow [a beard] . . . It will give me something to do" (298).

"By the middle of January I had a beard and the winter had settled into bright cold days and hard cold nights" (302).

Although Frederic Henry is describing his life with Catherine in Switzerland with his military career over, these passages would apply equally well to Hemingway, some three years before he wrote them, as he vacationed in Austria with Hadley and Bumby in early 1925, Unable to write.

"[H] is fiction stopped flowing. Although he managed to finish a version of 'A Lack of Passion,' little else was written between April and July. Instead he wrote thank-you letters" (Reynolds 282). In letters to Harold Loeb, Hemingway writes:

The grub is excellent and there is good red and white wine and 30 kinds of beer.... I'm in such shape already you wouldn't know me. Hard as hematite.... (SL 141, 29 Dec. 1924)

And:

I haven't done any work beyond starting 3 or 4 stories and not being able to go on with them." (SL 144, 5 Jan. 1925)

One could ascribe the loss of weight to exercise. Hemingway and Hadley were bowling and skiing, hiking up snow-covered mountain sides with sealskins wrapped around their skis in this pre-ski-lift era, but Reynolds records that Hemingway spent the first few days in Schruns in bed with his chronic, winter sore throat (Reynolds 259). Because they only arrived in Schruns on 20 December, and if Hemingway spent nearly a week in bed, as Reynolds says, then there's little time for body-building exercise before he writes Loeb about the great shape he is in by 29 December. I think it more likely that he had been losing weight since November, since the cessation of his hypomanic writing state, and that his letter to Ernest Walsh of 25 January (cited above), is probably fairly correct on the subject of Hemingway's weight: 182 pounds (minus winter clothes, and allowing for sloppy conversion from kilos to pounds - probably around 175 - there's no roll of stomach over his belt in the picture with Hadley and Bumby). "After Christmas ... the Hemingways spent most of their time skiing.... Both he and Hadley managed to lose weight" (Diliberto 184).

Susan Beegel is also aware of Hemingway's writing difficulties during this winter period while he struggled with "A Lack of Passion," a companion piece to "The Undefeated, says Beegel, and a story about an artist's inabilities:

Lack of Passion' may record in fiction its author's brief period of artistic impotence in the Austrian Vorarlberg" (67). Beegel wonders whether the protagonist in the story provided a way for Hemingway to express some of his own doubts and fears:

[T]he boy seems in the grips of pathological, almost suicidal depression, of paralyzing personal and professional despair.... He feels the "melancholia" Hemingway once described in a letter to John Dos Passos as "that gigantic bloody emptiness and nothingness like couldn't ever fuck, fight [sic] write and was all for death." (65)

Two other symptoms should be mentioned. As the DSM-III indicates, manic episodes are often marked, not by an expansive mood, but rather by an irritable one, and Hemingway's swings of mood, his explosions of temper are legendary. During early 1924, his frequent explosions against Ford Madox Ford and David O'Neil, his attacks in the transatlantic review against such friends as Lewis Galantiere (Reynolds 184-86), and his explosions at critics like Van Wyck Brooks and Scofield Thayer (SL 114-15), as well as innocuous individuals like Chard Powers Smith ("Mr. and Mrs. Elliot"), are typical of his temper. As Fitzgerald wrote Max Perkins of Hemingway, "He's very excitable" (Dear Scott/Dear Max 130). These temper tantrums continued all his life, but could dissipate as suddenly as they began: e.g., his attack on Harold Loeb leads to a fight in the alley, and ends with his holding Loeb's coat and backing down; he throws a book at Max Eastman, only to smile up in cheerful surrender from the ensuing collision (Baker 150-51, 317).

The other symptom is Hemingway's drinking. Patrick Hemingway "said his father drank a quart of whiskey a day for the last twenty years of his life" (Meyers 508). Dr. Fieve, quoting Karl Menninger, says that alcoholism is "'a disastrous attempt at self-cure' for the clinically depressed" (104); Fieve also notes that "... There seems to be a clustering of depression, alcoholism, and mood-swing in the family history of suicides" (85), and "One of the most common indicators of depression is a growing dependence on alcohol..." (98). Tom Dardis writes that "as Hemingway's drinking increased, it served to exacerbate his depressions" (166). The DSM-III also notices the relationship between use of alcohol and depression. Attempting to lighten a growing depression through drinking, Hemingway only deepened it.

If I could date more precisely the 1924 picture of Hemingway at 200 plus pounds in Paris (Plate 3),(7) I could tie it more closely to his hypomanic period (February through April) and his slack period (November through July) of the following year, when he began The Sun Also Rises and completed the manuscript in six weeks, then wrote The Torrents of Spring in what appears to be another hypomanic episode, one with sexual tension first over Duff Twysden and then Pauline - "involvement in pleasurable activities which have a high potential for painful consequences, e.g., ... sexual indiscretions." The pictures of him in Pamplona in July 1925 show him to be less lean than in January, but thinner than the previous year [Plate 6]. The following summer, Hemingway was even thinner, as a beach picture of him with Bumby on his shoulders indicates, continuing the cycle of weight change [Plate 7]. Since weight change is the symptom, and depressives may either gain or lose weight, this long-range diagnosis is difficult, but I would surmise that Hemingway gained weight in a hypomanic state or in the transition state after it, then lost it during a depressive episode, one marked by relative slimness of person and production.(8)

Although Mike Reynolds dates Hemingway's unpublished letter to Jane Heap in which he said that he was "all shot to hell inside and have lost 28 lbs./in last 2 mos." as June 1925 (Reynolds 386, n. 41), I think this is another case of Hemingway's moving reality around in order to gain sympathy. Pictures indicate that Hemingway was slimmer in January of 1925 than July of that year. Reynolds does note, however, "If he had lost half the weight he claimed, he exhibited a major symptom of clinical depression" (Reynolds 294-95). After what he called "black ass days"of depression during World War II, at the end of his life, keeping constant charts of his weight and blood pressure, as well as urine samples (Hotchner 170) Hemingway showed the "excessive concern with physical health" associated with depressives (DSM-III-R 220), as well as paranoid delusions about the IRS, the Immigration Service, and the FBI (of which only the last was based in reality). He was also suicidal, ultimately successfully so. There is no doubt about his depression, but I believe it was bipolar, alternating with hypomanic states of creativity, and that these cycles began, if not with his reactive depression over Agnes von Kurowsky's rejection, then with his cycles of creativity and lack thereof, accompanied by weight loss, gain, and loss, in 1923 through 1925. And, as Kenneth Lynn concludes his biography with praise for Hemingway's endurance, so too I think we have to recognize that Hemingway's productivity and careful craftsmanship were achieved despite his life-long illnesses, physical and mental. That he wrote fluently during hypomanic episodes is understandable; that he continued to create such masterpieces as "The Battler" during periods of depression is a sign of both his talent and his will.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge assistance from Dr. Joseph Tupin, psychiatrist and former director of the University of California Davis Medical Center. All photos, except that of Hemingway in a bathing suit and with Bumby on his shoulders, are from the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library, and are reproduced with their permission. I particularly want to thank Alan B. Goodrich, Supervisory Photoarchivist. The remaining photo, that of Ernest and Bumby at Antibes, is from the personal collection of Horton O'Neil, and I am very grateful to him for loaning me the photo and for permission to reprint it.

NOTES

1. Hemingway's father committed suicide, as did Ernest, his sister Ursula, and his brother, Leicester. Tom Dardis says that two sisters committed suicide (182). Ernest, at the end of his life, was treated at the Mayo Clinic for depression and received electro-shock treatment. His sons Patrick and Gregory also have received psychiatric care and electro-convulsive therapy, and his granddaughter Lorian, Gregory's daughter, to the extent that her novel Walking into the River is autobiographical, has been hospitalized and given ECT (Baker 198-99 [Clarence]; Meyers 567 [Ursula and Leicester], 422 [Patrick], 480-481 [Gregory]).

2. Dr. Ronald Fieve, a psychiatrist, says that "Perhaps the best-known modern manic-depressive writer is Ernest Hemingway" (58); but Dr. Fieve never personally examined Hemingway, and he is looking back on the entire career, after the author's hospitalization at the Mayo Clinic and suicide, not concentrating on a particular period as I am; moreover, his biographical data is based on Papa, by James McLendon, not Hemingway's most accurate biographer, for details of Hemingway's life in Key West. For "details of the writer's early years" (269), Fieve depends on Leicester Hemingway's My Brother, Ernest Hemingway Leicester, of course, was fifteen years younger than his brother, and thus had no direct knowledge of his brother's early years.

3. I am using only those I have found in published sources and would welcome new photos that would confirm, amend, or correct my suppositions.

4. Hemingway pointed out that writers are professional liars, a trait he carried over to his letters. He initially gave Hadley to believe that he was older than he was, as he does here with Walsh. Scott Fitzgerald, writing to Maxwell Perkins, also has him older than his actual age by two years (Dear Scott/Dear Max 106). Obviously, Hemingway wanted to appear more mature than he was, being Papa to all from the very start.

5. I am depending for the dates of origin of these and subsequent stories on both Michael Reynolds and Paul Smith.

6. Jowls on Hemingway can first be seen the previous year, 1923, in a picture of him and Robert McAlmon in Spain, when Hemingway would just have turned twenty-four. However, significant extra body weight is not apparent; Hemingway appears to be in the range of 170-180 pounds. [See appendix. Plate 8].

7. Alan Goodrich, Photoarchivist at the John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Library, and Sarah Demb, Archives Intern, were unable to date the photo more precisely. I am grateful for their efforts.

8. Baker records that Hemingway, when he checked into the Mayo Clinic, weighed 175.5 pounds, presumably clothed (Life 667).

WORKS CITED

Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner's, 1969.

-----, ed. Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters 1917-1961. New York: Scribner's, 1981.

Beegel, Susan F., "Ernest Hemingway's 'A Lack of Passion.'" Hemingway: Essays of Reassessment. Ed. Frank Scafella. New York: Oxford U P, 1991.62-78.

Callaghan, Morley. That Summer in Paris. New York: Coward-McCann, 1963.

Dardis, Tom. The Thirsty Muse: Alcohol and the American Writer. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989.

Diliberto, Gioia. Hadley. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992.

DSM-III-R. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Society, 1987.

Fieve, Ronald. Moodswing. New York: William Morrow, 1975.

Hemingway, Lorian. Walking Into the River. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Hotchner, A.E. Hemingway and His World. New York: Vendome Press, 1989.

Kuehl, John and Jackson Bryer, Ed. Dear Scott/Dear Max. New York: Scribner's, 1971.

Lynn, Kenneth S. Hemingway. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.

Meyers, Jeffrey. Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Harper & Row, 1985.

Reynolds, Michael. Hemingway: The Paris Years. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

Smith, Paul. A Reader's Guide to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1989.