Competitive club soccer: parents' assessments of children's early and later sport specialization.

Livingston, Jennifer ; Schmidt, Christopher ; Lehman, Sharon 等

The United States Youth Soccer organization's website reports that more than 3 million youth participate in its recreational, competitive, and Olympic development programs. Recreational teams provide informal learning opportunities with less fatigue and stress when contrasted with competitive club sports (Malina, 2010). In addition to the increased level of competiveness, club sports are viewed as more selective and expensive (Farrey, 2010; Malina, 2010). Popular media references the exclusivity of youth competitive club teams and the decreasing numbers of participants as levels of competitiveness increase in the continued debate about early versus late sport specialization (Malina, 2010).

Rather than specializing in a single sport, recreational leagues are better suited for children who are interested in sampling various sports. Diversification, or sampling multiple sports, includes more informal sport activities and more time in deliberate play. In contrast, specialization consists of deliberate practice or training with the purpose of improving skills (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009). Although diversification is associated with longer sport involvement, motor development, and cognitive functions (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009), year-round participation in multiple sports also may relate to increased risk of injuries (Biber & Gregory, 2010; Cassas & Cassettari-Wayhs, 2006).

Similarly, physical injuries are a major concern for sport specialization as well (Biber & Gregory, 2010; Cassas & Cassettari-Wayhs, 2006; Cuff, Loud, & O'Riordan, 2010; Malina, 2010). In addition, specialization is associated with psychological risks such as burnout (Coakley, 1992; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas, Patrick, & LaBella, 2012; Smith, 1986), a one-dimensional self-concept (Coakley, 1992), a pressure to perform (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002), isolation from peers, overdependence on a regulated schedule, and behavioral issues (Malina, 2010).

Proponents of specialization emphasize the large time commitment required to master skills; specifically, Ericsson's (1996) 10,000 hour theory of expertise development is frequently highlighted. Therefore, it is argued that specialization is necessary for peak performance and elite skill development (Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, 2009; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas, Patrick, & LaBella, 2012).

Ford and Williams (2012) contend that the path to success in sports is not a dichotomous situation; rather, it is a continuum. They suggest that early engagement with a little diversity and a lot of time spent playing and practicing a primary sport can lead to elite performance (Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, 2009). They discovered that among three groups of teenage soccer players--still-elite, ex-elite, and recreational--that the two elite groups had higher soccer practice hours than the recreational group, and the still-elite group had significantly higher play hours than the ex-elite group. There were no differences in competition hours between the three groups, and there were no differences in the number of other sports between the three groups. In a more recent article, Ford and Williams (2012) surveyed late-teen professional soccer players and former elite players who were not selected to continue professionally. Both groups participated in multiple sports as children, but the professional players had spent more time with soccer. The results also showed that professional players started supervised soccer practice significantly earlier (5.9 years) than non-professional players (6.8). Competition began around 7-8 years, elite training began at 10-11 years, and the professional players accumulated more hours in soccer than non-professional players.

In addition to time spent playing, practicing, and competing, a child's motivation serves a major role in development. Results of a study by Ward, Hodges, Starkes, and Williams (2007) indicate that elite and sub-elite soccer players began playful soccer activities at a similar age; however, the elite group began individual and team practice at an earlier age. Both groups participated in other sports and began focusing on soccer around 16 years of age, and there was no significant difference in terms of specialization or diversity. Instead, a difference was noted when the elite players rated their dedication, time, effort, competence, and level of enjoyment in soccer higher than the sub-elite players. A greater percentage of the elite group considered improving skill level the main reason for participating. However, a greater percentage of sub-elite players identified enjoyment as the main reason for participating in the current year of soccer.

The motivation to participate in youth sports includes both intrinsic and extrinsic influences with the influence of families as one factor (Cote, Lidor, & Hacfort, 2009; DeFresse & Smith, 2013; Fredricks & Eccles, 2005; Gould & Carson, 2004; Ranters, Boccaro, & Casper, 2008). Parents, however, are merely serving as external motivation (DeFresse & Smith, 2013) and may not realize the pressure felt by the child (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002; Ranters, Boccaro, & Casper, 2008) or how the parental control restricts the youth (Coakley, 1992).

There is anecdotal information related to parents pursuing the development of expertise to increase the child's chances of collegiate scholarships and professional contracts by requiring thousands of hours of practice based upon Ericsson's (1996) theory of talent development (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002; Cote, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, 2009; Malina, 2010). Furthermore, additional literature is based on expert opinion or retrospective data rather than empirical evidence. The purpose of our survey research project is to collect empirical data to describe the competitive club soccer experience more objectively. Our intent is to collect longitudinal data on youth soccer players participating in competitive clubs by surveying parents or guardians and conducting periodical cross-sectional analyses. Our long-term research questions are: (1) What are the motivating factors for parents of youth in competitive club soccer? (2) What are the parents' perceptions of the child's experience in competitive club soccer? (3) To what extent do youth soccer players on competitive club teams specialize in soccer only? (4) What patterns are observed in the youth soccer players who achieve elite or professional status? (5) What factors are associated with leaving soccer? In our current project, we focused on the parents' perceptions and reasons for participation.

Methods

Participants

We identified 204 soccer clubs who entered at least one team in the under-8 (U8) through under-12 (U12) age divisions of Cal South's 2014 State Cup. We sought survey responses from the parents of children participating on a team in one of these soccer clubs.

Instruments

We developed the Youth Competitive Club Survey (YCCS) to explore the parent's perceptions of the child's experience, understand the parent's reasons for placing the child in a competitive sport organization, and determine if the youth participate in additional sports currently or previously. We developed the items on the survey both inductively and deductively. First, we considered our previous experiences interacting with athletes and parents as coaches, athletic trainers, and parents. Items were created deductively from research-based descriptions of youth sports experiences (Farrey, 2010; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas, Patrick, & LaBella, 2012; Malina, 2010; Ward, Hodges, Starkes, & Williams, 2007).

Demographic items were included in the instrument to better understand the youth who were indirectly assessed as well as for their contribution to analyzing group differences in the data. Prior to collecting data, items were reviewed by professionals with a background in exercise and sport science. Their feedback was used to refine the wording of items and instructions as appropriate.

The items on the YCCS were organized into six sections: perception of child's experience (15), reasons for child's participation (15), report of injuries sustained by child (4), participation in other sports (9), demographics of child (5), and time and financial commitments to club (6). In total, 54 items were included in the complete instrument; however, not all respondents were required to complete the entire instrument. For example, participants could indicate their child never participated in other sports; as a result, they could skip all items exploring the type of sport or reasons for discontinuing participation.

Items examining the perceptions of the club soccer experience included positively worded statements such as My child likes his/her coach and My child's overall fitness level has improved as a result of participating in club soccer. Negatively worded items included My child's school work has suffered as a result of participating in club soccer and The time commitment is difficult. The reasons for participation were identified through items such as My child wants to play on the club team and 1 want my child to improve his/her soccer skills. Each of these items were measured according to a Likert-type scale ranging from 1, strongly disagree, to 6, strongly agree. Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the 30 items exploring perceptions and reasons for participation was estimated at .72.

Procedures

After securing Institutional Review Board approval, we collected contact information for directors of coaching or presidents for each of the 204 soccer clubs who entered teams in the under-8 (U8) through under-12 (U12) age divisions of Cal South's 2014 State Cup. We gathered the information from their respective websites and sent an invitation to participate via email to 143 club representatives. We sent reminder messages one week as well as one month after the initial invitation. Sixty-one clubs were not contacted because their websites did not provide a direct email address or a merger with another club was in process.

Through the invitation, we asked the club representative to forward the invitation with a link to an electronic survey (surveymonkey.com) to parents of children who participated in U12 or younger teams during the 2013-2014 season. We received 59 complete survey responses.

Results

Each of the 59 surveys represented information about a child participating in a competitive club soccer organization. The children participated on teams ranging from U8 to U12, and the children began playing competitive club soccer between the ages of 3 and 11 years. See Table 1 for additional demographic information.

Our first step in data analysis was calculating the mean scores for each of the perception and reasons for participation items (see Table 2). Next, we explored correlations between items on the survey. The strongest relationship was between I want my child to learn leadership skills and I want my child to learn responsibility, r(59) = .818, p < .001. Additional relationships with connections greater than .70 included I want my child to learn how to be a member of a team and I want my child to learn leadership skills (.795, p < .001), I want my child to have scholarship opportunities for college and I want my child to have the opportunity to play soccer professionally (.710, p < .001), l want my child to learn responsibility and I want my child to learn how to be a member of a team (.707, p < .001), and My child likes his/her coach and My child looks forward to games (.702, p < .001). The strongest negative relationship between variables was between My child's school work has suffered as a result of participating in club soccer and At what age did your child begin participating in competitive club soccer, r(59) = -.361 ,p = .005. This relationship suggests that the children who began participating in competitive club soccer at earlier ages may not have performed as well in school.

Finally, we explored group differences. There were no significant gender differences in perceptions or reasons for participation. However, when we split the data according to gender, we noticed that the girls tend to spend more days per week and more hours per week in soccer. We also discovered noticeable changes in the correlations in the split data file. Among the boys, the strongest positive relationship was between My child likes his/her coach and My child looks forward to practice, r(22) = .675, p = .001. A similar, yet not as strong, relationship was identified among the girls, r(37) = .546, p < .001. Instead, the girls had a stronger relationship between My child likes his/her coach and My child looks forward to games (.743, p < .001) than the boys (.524, p = .012).

A strong positive relationship was noted among the girls between My child enjoys playing soccer and My child plays soccer because he/she enjoys the sport (.743, p < .001); however, these items were not significantly correlated among the boys. Likewise, the responses for the girls suggested strong associations between 1 want my child to learn leadership skills and 1 want my child to learn time management skills (.913, p < .001), I want my child to learn how to be a member of a team and 1 want my child to learn responsibility (.855, p < .001), and I want my child to learn how to be a member of a team and I want my child to learn time management skills (.749, p < .001); however, there were no significant relationships in the data for the boys.

Among the boys, the strongest negative relationship was between My child is tired after training and My child looks forward to practice (-.661, p = .001); however, My child is tired after training also is negatively correlated to My child's overall fitness level has improved as a result of participating in club soccer (-.453, p < .05) and 1 want my child to have the opportunity to play soccer professionally (-.444, p < .05).

Similar negative correlations exist among both the boys and the girls between items paired with Our family enjoys soccer. The strongest negative relationship for the boys is with Our family has made sacrifices for my child to play club soccer (-.439, p < .04), and the strongest negatively associated item for the girls is Our family skips other activities (church, school events, birthday parties) to attend club soccer events (-.454, p = .005). The data for the girls shows no significant relationship between Our family enjoys soccer and Our family enjoys attending dub soccer events; however, there is a positive relationship for the boys (.516, p = .014).

When we grouped the data according to whether the child participates in another sport, those who played another sport more strongly agreed with the statement Our community/ school team is not competitive/challenging enough for my child (M = 4.586, SD = 1.570) than those whose child only played soccer (M = 3.700, SD = 1.643, p = .039). Additionally, the girls who only play soccer were significantly more likely to participate in private training for soccer (M = 4.182, SD = 1.651, p < .01) than those who played additional sports (M = 2.333, SD = 1.952).

Although there were not enough respondents from each of the start age categories to compare all possibilities, differences were evident when the groups were collapsed to Early Start, or starting competitive club soccer at age 7 or younger, and Late Start, or starting at 8 years of age or older. Parents reported a significantly higher agreement with the statement My child's soccer skills have improved as a result of participating in club soccer in the Early Start group (M = 5.884, SD = .431) than those in the Late Start group (M = 5.606, SD = .496, p = .027). No significant differences were reported in the reasons for participating based on start age group.

Similarly, significant differences were identified in perceptions and reasons for playing when years played was divided into 2 or fewer years and 3 or more years. The parents of children who played 2 or fewer years reported significantly less agreement with My child enjoys playing soccer (M= 5.621, SD = .493, p = .030), Our family has made sacrifices for my child to play club soccer (M = 4.069, SD = 1.307, p = .029), and Our family skips other activities (church, school, events, birthday parties) to attend club soccer events (M = 3.965, SD = 1.451, p = .041) than those whose children have played 3 or more years (M = 5.866, SD = .346; M= 4.766, SD = 1.073; M= 4.700, SD = 1.236). A significant difference was evident in the level of agreement with the item Our family enjoys soccer between those whose children played 2 or fewer years (M= 5.58, SD = .568) and those whose children have played 3 or more years (M= 5.20, SD = .714, p = .026).

Discussion

Researchers have discussed the role of the parent in youth sports and many have speculated reasons for early youth sports participation or specialization (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002; Coakley, 1992; DeFresse & Smith, 2013; DiFiori, 2010). Our purpose was to gather data from parents whose children participate in competitive club soccer organizations to explore the parents' reasons for placing the child in the organization as well as the parents' perceptions of the child's and family's experiences.

Several logical correlations were identified between items exploring reasons related to general life skills such as leadership, responsibility, time management, and team membership. However, the relationships were strongest and only significant among the girls. The results from the parents of the boys did not suggest the same associations, yet there was not a significant difference between the genders on any of these items individually. Rather, the mean scores were slightly higher for the boys.

A common perception according to research, popular media, and commentaries is that parents place their children in competitive sports to provide an opportunity for collegiate scholarships and professional sport contracts (DiFiori, 2010; Malina, 2010). We noted a positive correlation between I want my child to have scholarship opportunities for college and 1 want my child to have the opportunity to play' soccer professionally (r (59) = .710, p < .001) and a negative correlation between I want my child to have the opportunity to play soccer professionally and My child is tired after training among the boys (r (22) = -.444, p < .05). In addition, being tired after training is negatively related to My child's overall fitness level has improved as a result of participating in club soccer (-.453, p < .05). In total, these relationships suggest that parents who want their boys to have professional soccer opportunities perceive their sons as less tired after training and more physically fit. Fortunately, the parents are sensing greater skill improvement among their children, particularly those who started at an early age.

Intrinsic motivation to participate in soccer, rather than pressure from parents, is crucial (Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002; DeFresse & Smith, 2013; Ward, Hodges, Starkes, & Williams, 2007). According to our data, the responses from parents of girls indicated a strong relationship between the perceived enjoyment by the child as a reason for participating, but the data from parents of boys did not identify the same relationship. Of all possible reasons for participating listed in the survey, the girls had highest mean scores for My child plays soccer because he/she enjoys the sport and I want my child to exercise regularly (M = 5.6486, SD = .538) as well as I want my child to improve his/her soccer skills (M = 5.5676, SD = .647) and My child wants to play on the club team (M= 5.5676, SD = .603). For the boys, the reasons with the highest scores were I want my child to exercise regularly (M = 5.6364, SD = .658) as well as I want my child to improve his/her soccer skills and My child plays soccer because he/she enjoys the sport (M= 5.909, SD = .503). Parents of neither gender rated scholarships or professional contracts as their main reasons for participation; however, the reasons for the girls include more items that consider both the enjoyment and desires of the child. These results contribute to the complex discussion of gender-stereotyped beliefs discussed by Fredericks and Eccles' (2005). In their study, the noted that parents provided greater support for boys participating in sports than girls. More recently, Peter (2011) observed Little League fathers drawing attention to their sons' errors through verbal and non-verbal communication, but daughters were not treated in the same manner. As women's sports continue to grow, more research is necessary to understand the gender differences (Fredericks & Eccles, 2005).

Some negative aspects of participating in a competitive soccer club were identified in our data. Overall, the earlier the girls began participating, the more likely their school work suffers. Among boys, there is a significant difference in the perceived negative influence on school work based on years played; those whose son played fewer years reported greater (M = 1.800, SD = .447) school difficulties than those who played more years (M= 1.143, SD = .378, p = .020). Our project did not explore other extracurricular activities beyond sports; therefore, other responsibilities could distract the child from time spent on school work.

In a national survey of 10th graders (Fredericks, 2012) participation in extracurricular activities, it was noted that an excessive breadth, as measured by the number, and intensity, as measured by the hours, can negatively affect academic performance indicators. Frederick reported that the academic performance followed a curvilinear path that peaked at 14 hours of involvement and declined afterwards; however, the majority of respondents (78%) in our study reported that their child spends 3-6 hours in soccer training per week. These results do not include additional time spent in games which varies weekly. Even so, the relatively low mean scores in our study suggest overall disagreement with the notion that participation has led to poor school performance.

The data from parents of both genders also draw a connection between the family not enjoying soccer and making sacrifices as well as skipping other events. There remains a positive relationship between the boys' families enjoying soccer and enjoying attending soccer events; however, the girls' families are not having the same experience. It should be noted, though, that the girls spent more days and hours at practice and were more likely to participate in private training if soccer was their only sport. This additional time commitment may be associated with the growing disdain toward soccer.

Finally, those whose children played longer have less enjoyment as a family overall, but the child enjoys soccer more so than children who have played fewer years. This lower level of family enjoyment is paired with greater perceptions of sacrifices made and other events skipped. If burnout is a concern for early participation (Coakley, 1992; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas, Patrick, & LaBella, 2012; Smith, 1986), then our data suggests that the family may be more at risk for burnout than the child because the child continues to enjoy the sport.

Limitations and Future Research

We chose to survey the parents to understand the reasons they place their child in a competitive sport environment. In addition, we wanted to explore the parent's perceptions of the child's experience. We realize the parent's perception may differ from the child's experience (Kanters, Boccaro, & Casper, 2008), and we cannot claim that the parent's perception is the child's reality. Ideally, research should explore the experience youth in competitive sports from multiple perspectives including child athletes, parents, siblings, and coaches. Future projects collecting data from parents or guardians should gather more demographic information about the parents and the family. Our data was limited to descriptive information about the children; therefore, we could not explore the influence of variables related to the responding parent's gender, age, or number of children.

The number of responses was limited by the participation of the club contact person. Some contacts responded to the invitation confirming that the invitation was forwarded, yet email accounts for other contacts were no longer in use. Finally, it is safe to assume that not all clubs distributed the invitation to the survey research because one member of our research team did not receive the invitation from her child's soccer club. Future research projects should identify a method to collect contact information for families with children on rosters prior to the start of the fall league season. During the spring or summer of the following year, direct invitations should be sent to the families. Contacting the families of children who were on rosters prior to the start of the fall season could also increase the participation of parents whose children left a club, and the data collected could include more variation in experiences. Our data only represents children who remained with a club at the conclusion of the club year, and we only captured the experience of the younger participants. As our longitudinal data collection progresses, we hope to provide a clearer understanding of the changing experiences.

In addition to exploring group differences, we would have liked to utilize principal components analysis to identify underlying factors which explain the parents' reasons for placing their children in competitive club soccer. Our sample size of 59 respondents was not adequate for providing valid interpretation using principal components analysis (Comrey & Lee, 1992). Using the small dataset, three possible factors emerged. Several items clustered related to the development of life skills such as I want my child to learn responsibility and I want my child to learn leadership skills. A second group of items related to an interest in soccer contained items such as I want my child to have scholarship opportunities for college and I want my child to improve his/her soccer skills. A third factor focused on child-specific rationale for participation included My child play's soccer because he/she enjoys the sport and My child wants to play on the club team. Further research with a larger sample is necessary to confirm or expand upon these factors identified by our preliminary exploration.

Finally, one electronic survey link was sent to all clubs, and we did not request a club name. Therefore, we do not know which clubs are represented, underrepresented, or over-represented. Since club philosophies vary, the experiences of the youth and their families likely also vary across clubs.

The results of our study support our intentions to continue gathering data from a similar population for a longitudinal project. In addition, many respondents provided contact information to participate in annual follow-up surveys. In our current study, we identified differences in perceived experiences or reasons for participation based on gender, the number of years played, participation in additional sports, and the age at which the child began participating in competitive club soccer. Through a multi-year project, we can expand the age groups to capture more diversity in the years of participation and the start age for competitive sports. By following up with previous respondents, we may better understand reasons for choosing to specialize or withdraw from a sport. Ultimately, continual exploration and refinement of the data collected can aide in understanding the competitive soccer experience for youth and their families.

References

Biber, R., & Gregory, A. (2010). Overuse injuries in youth sports: Is there such a thing as too much sports? Pediatric Annals, 59(5), 286-292.

Butcher, J., Lindner, K. J., & Johns, D. P. (2002). Withdrawal from competitive youth sport: A retrospective ten-year study. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(2), 145-163.

Cassas, K. J., & Cassettari-Wayhs, A. (2006). Childhood and adolescent sports-related overuse injuries. American Family Physician, 73, 1014-1022.

Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem? Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 271-285.

Cote, J., Lidor, R., & Hackfort, D. (2009). ISSP position stand: To sample or to specialize? Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to continued participation and elite performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 7-17.

Cuff, S., Loud, K., & O'Riordan, M. A. (2010). Overuse injuries in high school athletes. Clinical Pediatrics, 49(8), 731-736.

DeFresse, J. D. & Smith, A. L. (2013). Teammate social support, burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 14, 258-265.

DiFiori, J. R (2010). Evaluation of overuse injuries in children and adolescents. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6), 372-378.

Farrey, T. (2010). Competitive youth sports in society: What President Obama needs to know to get--and keep--kids moving. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6), 359-363.

Ford, P. R., Ward, P., Hodges, N. J., & Williams, A. M. (2009). The role of deliberate practice and play in career progression in sport: The early engagement hypothesis. High Ability Studies, 20(1), 65-75.

Ford, P. R., & Williams, M. (2012). The developmental activities engaged in by elite youth soccer players who progressed to professional status compared to those who did not. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 349-352.

Fredricks, J. A. (2012). Extracurricular participation and academic outcomes: Testing the over-scheduling hypothesis. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 41, 295-306.

Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). Family socialization, gender, and sport motivation and involvement. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology', 27, 3-31.

Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2004). Fun and games: Myths surrounding the role of youth sports in developing Olympic champions. Youth Studies Australia, 23(1), 19

Jayanthi, N., Pinkham, C., Dugas, L., Patrick, B., & LaBella, C. (2012). Sports specialization in young athletes: Evidence-based recommendations. Sports Health: A Multidisciplanary Approach, 5(3), 251-257.

Ranters, M. A., Boccaro, J. & Casper, J. (2008). Supported or pressured? An examination of agreement among parents and children on parent's role in youth sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 31(1), 64-80.

Malina, R. M. (2010). Early sport specialization: Roots, effectiveness, and risks. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6), 364-371.

Peter, N. E. (2011 Supp). Confessions of a baseball mom: The impact of youth sports on parents' feelings and behaviors. New Directions for Youth Development, 2011, 123-171.

Smith, R. E. (1986). Toward a cognitive-effect model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5(1), 36-50.

Ward, P., Hodges, N. J., Starkes, J. L., & Williams, A. M. (2007). The road to excellence: Deliberate practice and the development of expertise. High Ability Studies, 18(2), 119-153.

Jennifer Livingston, Christopher Schmidt and Sharon Lehman

Azusa Pacific University

Address Correspondence to: Jennifer Livingston, Ph.D., Dept, of Exercise and Sport Science, Azusa Pacific University, PO Box 7000, Azusa, CA 91702. Email:jlivingston@apu.edu Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Respondents' Children Variable N % Gender Female 37 62.7 Male 22 37.3 Age Division U8 7 11.9 U9 10 16.9 U10 12 20.3 U11 3 5.1 U12 27 45.8 Age Started Club Soccer 3 years 1 1.7 4 2 3.4 5 6 10.2 6 3 5.1 7 14 23.7 8 16 27.1 9 9 15.3 10 5 8.5 11 3 5.1 Position Forward 13 22.0 Midfield 14 23.7 Defender 17 28.8 Goalkeeper 6 10.2 Changes frequently 9 15.3 Plays Other Organized Sport(s) Yes 29 49.2 No 30 50.8 Days of Soccer per Week 2 days/week 3 5.1 3 31 52.5 4 18 30.5 5 7 11.9 Hours of Training per Week 1-2 hours/week 2 3.4 3-4 23 39.0 5-6 23 39.0 7-8 8 13.6 9-10 2 3.4 11-12 1 1.7 Table 2 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Survey Items All Boys Children M N M My child enjoys playing soccer. 5.7458 22 5.7727 (.439) (.429) My child likes his/her coach. 5.5763 22 5.5909 (.700) (.503) My child's coach encourages skill 5.6610 22 5.6818 development. (.576) (.477) My child's soccer skills have improved 5.7288 22 5.7727 as a result of participating in club (.485) (.429) soccer. My child looks forward to practice. 5.0847 22 5.0455 (.915) (.899) My child looks forward to games. 5.5593 22 5.6364 (.701) (.492) My child participates in private 3.3559 22 3.2273 training. (1.892) (1.771) My child is tired after training. 4.2373 22 4.0455 (1.072) (1.046) My child's school work has suffered 1.7797 22 1.5909 as a result of participating in club (.966) (.908) soccer. My child's overall fitness level has 5.3559 22 5.2727 improved as a result of participating (.713) (.631) in club soccer. The financial investment is a burden. 3.5085 22 3.4545 (1.251) (1.405) The time commitment is difficult. 3.4915 22 3.4091 (1.357) (1.403) Our family has made sacrifices for my 4.4237 22 4.1364 child to play club soccer. (1.235) (1.521) Our family skips other activities (church, school events, birthday 4.3390 22 3.9545 parties) to attend club soccer events (1.385) (1.676) (practice, games, and tournaments). Our family enjoys attending club soccer 5.2542 22 5.1818 events. (.779) (.958) My child plays soccer because he/she 5.6271 22 5.5909 enjoys the sport. (.522) (.503) My child has natural soccer skills 5.1525 22 5.2727 and talent. (.847) (.767) My child needs an outlet for his/her 4.1864 22 4.3636 energy. (1.503) (1.497) I want my child to learn how to be a 5.3729 22 5.4091 member of a team. (.717) (.666) I want my child to learn leadership 5.4746 22 5.5455 skills. (.653) (.596) I want my child to learn responsibility. 5.4915 22 5.5455 (.653) (.596) I want my child to learn time management 5.4407 22 5.5000 skills. (.749) (.802) I want my child to exercise regularly. 5.6441 22 5.6364 (.580) (.658) Our family enjoys soccer. 5.3898 22 5.4545 (.670) (.596) I want my child to improve his/her 5.5763 22 5.5909 soccer skills. (.593) (.503) I want my child to have scholarship 4.8475 22 4.7273 opportunities for college. (1.362) (1.162) I want my child to have the opportunity 3.7797 22 3.9545 to play soccer professionally. (1.498) (1.430) We have friends participating 4.6610 22 4.5455 on the team. (1.470) (1.471) Our community/school team is not 4.1356 22 4.5455 competitive or challenging enough (1.655) (1.654) for my child. My child wants to play on the club team. 5.5085 22 5.4091 (.653) (.734) Girls N M My child enjoys playing soccer. 37 5.7297 (.450) My child likes his/her coach. 37 5.5676 (.801) My child's coach encourages skill 37 5.6486 development. (.633) My child's soccer skills have improved 37 5.7027 as a result of participating in club (.520) soccer. My child looks forward to practice. 37 5.1081 (.936) My child looks forward to games. 37 5.5135 (.804) My child participates in private 37 3.4324 training. (1.980) My child is tired after training. 37 4.3514 (1.086) My child's school work has suffered 37 1.8919 as a result of participating in club (.994) soccer. My child's overall fitness level has 37 5.4054 improved as a result of participating (.762) in club soccer. The financial investment is a burden. 37 3.5405 (1.169) The time commitment is difficult. 37 3.5405 (1.346) Our family has made sacrifices for my 37 4.5946 child to play club soccer. (1.013) Our family skips other activities (church, school events, birthday 37 4.5676 parties) to attend club soccer events (1.144) (practice, games, and tournaments). Our family enjoys attending club soccer 37 5.2973 events. (.661) My child plays soccer because he/she 37 5.6486 enjoys the sport. (.538) My child has natural soccer skills 37 5.0811 and talent. (.894) My child needs an outlet for his/her 37 4.0811 energy. (1.516) I want my child to learn how to be a 37 5.3514 member of a team. (.753) I want my child to learn leadership 37 5.4324 skills. (.689) I want my child to learn responsibility. 37 5.4595 (.691) I want my child to learn time management 37 5.4054 skills. (.725) I want my child to exercise regularly. 37 5.6486 (.538) Our family enjoys soccer. 37 5.3514 (.716) I want my child to improve his/her 37 5.5676 soccer skills. (.647) I want my child to have scholarship 37 4.9189 opportunities for college. (1.479) I want my child to have the opportunity 37 3.6757 to play soccer professionally. (1.547) We have friends participating 37 4.7297 on the team. (1.484) Our community/school team is not 37 3.8919 competitive or challenging enough (1.629) for my child. My child wants to play on the club team. 37 5.5676 (.603)