Students' perceived autonomy support and psychological needs satisfaction in physical education and exercise intrinsic motivation.

Liu, Jing Dong ; Chung, Pak-Kwong

The physical and psychological health benefits of regular physical activity throughout the lifespan have been well documented (Haskell et al., 2007). However, physical inactivity is still prevalent among people throughout the world (Word Health Organization, 2011). A recent survey conducted among 2,013 Hong Kong residents (Department of Health, 2010) revealed that, in the 7 days prior to the survey, 54.6% of the respondents did not engage in any moderate physical activity for at least 10 minutes a day and 61.6% of respondents did not engage in any vigorous physical activity for at least 10 minutes a day. Overall, 64.2% of the respondents did not attain the physical activity level of adults recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). These findings suggest that most Hong Kong residents are living a physically inactive lifestyle, which highlights the critical importance of elucidating the social psychological processes that may facilitate the physical activity behaviors of the people of Hong Kong and those living elsewhere.

Although the antecedents of participation in physical activity are complicated (Sallis, Owen, & Fisher, 2008), theories of motivation provide insight into the processes underpinning physical activity participation (Standage & Ryan, 2012). According to self-determination theory (SDT, Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000), human behaviors can be characterized by three general types of motivation, namely, amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. These three types of motivations lie along a continuum from non-self-determination to high self-determination. Amotivation is considered to be a non-self-determined state which reflects no intention to engage in a behavior. Extrinsic motivation is located between amotivation and intrinsic motivation, and occurs when individuals are motivated by extrinsic factors. Extrinsic motivation is further characterized by four types of regulatory style: external, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation. Intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined form of motivation, and refers to performing a behavior for its own sake because it is inherently satisfying, of interest, or enjoyable. In exercise and physical activity related studies, intrinsic motivation has been found to be the most desired form of motivation that could directly lead to individuals' adaptive exercise behaviors (i.e., exercise attendance and adherence) and subjective well-being (Chung & Liu, 2013; Edmunds, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2006; Li, 1999; Rahman, Thogersen-Ntoumani, Thatcher, & Doust, 2011; Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997).

Within SDT, these motives arise as a consequence of the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs, namely autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are specified as necessary for individuals' healthy development and optimal functioning regardless of cultural or contextual differences. The need for autonomy refers to the experience of volition and psychological freedom. The need for competence refers to the experience of efficacy in one's pursuits. The need for relatedness refers to the desire to feel connected to others--to love and care, and to be loved and cared for. It was proposed that social environments can either support or hinder the satisfaction of these three basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2002), and, in turn, will result in different types of motivation. Previous empirical evidence from sports, exercise, and physical education (PE) contexts have provided consistent support for this proposition (e.g., Edmunds et al., 2006; Gagne, Ryan, & Bargmann, 2003; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle, 2003; Rahman et al., 2011).

Autonomy-supportive social environments are suggested to contribute to the satisfaction of the above mentioned three basic psychological needs (Deci, 1975). Autonomy support is provided when an authority figure is ready to take the participants' perspective into account, acknowledge the others' feelings, promote choice and decision making, and supplies meaningful explanation and information while minimizing external demands (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2008; Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Although other social factors advanced within SDT, such as structure (providing guidance, expectations, plans, and goal setting) and involvement (the degree to which significant others devote time, energy, and interest to others) are also proposed to support more adaptive motivation, autonomy support has been the most widely examined social factor in various domains in the extant literature. Aligned with theoretical predictions, previous studies suggest that students' perceptions of autonomy support provided by important others (i.e., teachers, coaches, parents) are positively associated with the satisfaction of the three psychological needs which, in turn, positively correlate with students' autonomous motivation in PE class (e.g., Adie, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2008; 2012; Gagne et al., 2003; Standage, Gillison, Ntoumanis, & Treasure, 2012; Vlachopoulos, & Karavani, 2009). Furthermore, previous studies have suggested that PE teachers' autonomy support also indirectly predict students' autonomous motivation toward exercise outside of the school PE context via autonomous motivation in PE class (e.g., Standage et al., 2012). This phenomenon was explained by a trans-contextual model (TCM, Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007), in which motivation from one context (e.g., PE) could be transferred to another (e.g., exercise). Specifically, TCM proposes that the perceived autonomy support from a significant social agent (e.g., a PE teacher) will influence an individual's motivation in one context directly and also indirectly influence his or her motivation in another related context (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, & Baranowski, 2005; Hagger et al., 2003). Recent evidence in PE from different countries and cultures (e.g., Singapore, Estonia, Hungary, and Greece) has also provided robust support for this tenet of TCM (e.g., Barkoukis, Hagger, Lambropoulos, & Tsorbatzoudis, 2010; Hagger et al., 2005; Standage et al., 2012). Interestingly, a recent study conducted by Standage and colleagues (2012) found that satisfaction of autonomy and competence (but not relatedness) in PE predicted motivation toward exercise via motivation in PE classes. These findings suggest that motivation could be transferred from PE to exercise contexts, and that the satisfaction of psychological needs may be critical to this process.

Collectively, previous research has widely examined the prediction of autonomy support on motivation via the satisfaction of psychological needs within the same context, or the across context prediction of satisfaction of basic psychological needs in PE on exercise autonomous motivation via autonomous motivation in PE class (i.e., Barkoukis et al., 2010). However, no previous study has investigated the relationship between students' perception of autonomy support in PE and their exercise intrinsic motivation outside of the PE context via psychological needs satisfaction in PE. The satisfaction of basic psychological needs (autonomy and competence) has been proven to foster intrinsic motivation in the same context (e.g., PE), and previous findings from TCM study suggest that the basic psychological needs constitute necessary nutriments for motivation within and across domains. It is reasonable to propose that the perceived important others' autonomy support (PE teachers' autonomy support) and individuals' satisfaction of basic psychological needs (students' satisfaction of autonomy and competence) in one context (PE class) may also be associated with individuals' intrinsic motivation in another related context (e.g., outside of the PE class). Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether students' perception of teachers' autonomy support and needs satisfaction in PE class would exhibit trans-contextual correlations with their intrinsic motivation towards exercise outside of PE class. Based on the tenets of SDT and TCM, it was expected that there would be an indirect association between students' perception of PE teachers' autonomy support and students' exercise intrinsic motivation through the students' satisfaction of psychological needs in PE class (Figure 1). It was also expected that the relationships between these variables would be invariant across the two samples from the same population (Chinese university students in Hong Kong). The invariance testing strategy is straightforward in addressing the question of whether a model that has been specified in one sample replicates over a second independent sample from the same population (Byrne, 2010). The replicability of the model across groups will provide further confirmation of the stability of the relationships in the model. Specifically, it was hypothesized that PE teachers' autonomy support would be positively related to students' satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in PE class (HI); students' satisfaction of autonomy and competence, but not relatedness, in PE class would be positively associated with their exercise intrinsic motivation outside of PE class (H2); and the relationships of (H1) and (H2) would be invariant across two different samples of Chinese university students in Hong Kong (H3).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Method

Participants

A total of 468 Chinese university students in Hong Kong completed the questionnaires. The students were randomly divided into two samples. Sample 1 ([N.sub.1]=233) comprised 147 females and 86 males ranging in age from 20 to 27 (M= 21.13, SD = 1.5). Sample 2 ([N.sub.2]=235) comprised 143 females and 92 males ranging in age from 19 to 26 (M = 21.19, SD = 1.4).

Procedure

Ethical approval was obtained from a local University Human and Animal Research Ethic Committee. This study adopted a cross-sectional design. The PE teachers were contacted to obtain permission for data collection. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants prior to data collection, in which detailed information about the study was provided. Participants were informed prior to data collection that the anonymity and confidentiality of their answers would be preserved at all times. The administrator of the data collection emphasized that the purpose of the questionnaire was to measure participants' general feelings about PE class and their exercise motivation outside of PE class. All participants participated in this study voluntarily. Participants completed the questionnaires at the end of the PE class in the absence of the PE teachers.

Measures

Perceived autonomy support. The students' perceptions of autonomy support provided by their teachers were assessed via six items from the Health Care Climate Questionnaire (HCCQ; Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan, & Deci, 1996). Items were slightly amended to target the PE context. The items were translated from English into Chinese using translation and back-translation techniques (Brislin, 1970). Two bilingual translators translated the items independently from English into Chinese. Consensus was obtained through discussion to form a preliminary Chinese translation version, which was then independently translated from Chinese back to English by two other translators. Comparison of the back-translated English version with the original English version revealed that the meaning of the items was identical. Finally, seven native Hong Kong Chinese university students were invited to answer the translated items. The students reported that the items were easy to understand. Slight modifications were made based on the suggestions of the students regarding the wording and syntax to enhance item clarity. Responses were provided on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree).

Basic psychological needs satisfaction. The Chinese version of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (Liu, Chung & Duan, 2013) was used for measuring the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in their PE class. It comprised 11 items grouped into three subscales, with four items each for assessing autonomy and competence and three items for assessing relatedness. Responses were provided on a 5-point scale (1 = I don't agree at all and 5 = I completely agree). Items were slightly amended to target the PE context. A previous study (Liu et al., 2013) in an exercise context suggested that the instrument had satisfactory validity and acceptable internal consistency reliability (with composite reliability ranging from .75 to .86).

Exercise intrinsic motivation. The intrinsic motivation subscale from the Chinese version of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire -2 (Chung & Liu, 2012), which comprised four items, was employed for measuring exercise intrinsic motivation. Reponses were provided on a 5-point scale (0 = not true for me and 4 = very true for me). Previous study (Chung & Liu, 2012) suggested that the intrinsic motivation subscale had acceptable internal consistency reliability (composite reliability = .88).

Data Analysis

Data analysis in this study included three parts. Firstly, descriptive statistics, inter-correlations of target variables, and Cronbach's alpha coefficients of all subscales were computed. Secondly, structural equation modelling (SEM) was conducted to test whether the hypothesized structural model fits the data well using the maximum likelihood method. Lastly, invariance analysis across samples was performed to test the stability of the structural model displayed in different samples from the same population. Analyses were carried out by PASW statistics 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and AMOS 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

Multi fit indices were utilized to evaluate the adequacy of the model fit to the data in the present study including chi-square value, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) accompanied by its 90% confidence interval (90% CI), and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The adequacy of the model fit to the data was evaluated using multiple fit indices, such as the chi-square statistic, CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA (including its 90% confidence interval) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The thresholds of >.90, close to (or less than) .08, and up to .08 for the CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA indices, respectively, indicate an acceptable fit. A CFI value exceeding .95, and SRMR and RMSEA close to (or less than) .08 and .06, respectively, are indicative of good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Invariance-testing strategy was conducted to cross validate the relationships between the variables. This strategy has been shown to accurately address the question of whether a model that has been specified in one sample replicates over a second independent sample from the same population (Byrne, 2010). The replicability of the model across groups will provide further support for the stability of the relationships in the model. Specifically, a baseline model was established first and then two increasingly constrained models, which are specified to examine the measurement and structural parameters of the structural model, were tested for equality across samples (Byrne, 2010). It was commonly considered that the structural and measurement residuals in tests for invariance are somewhat rare and to be excessively stringent. Therefore, in this study, we only tested the invariance of the measurement weights (factor loadings) and structural weights (structural regression paths) across groups (Byrne, 2010). Traditionally, invariance testing has relied on the [chi square] test statistics as an indicator of equality across groups. However, as this test is influenced by sample size, the CFI difference approach recommended by Cheung and Rensvold (2002) was also employed in this study. Accordingly, an absolute value of change in CFI (ACFI) smaller than .01 between increasingly more constrained models is considered indicative of model invariance.

Results

Descriptive Statistics, Inter-correlations, and Scales' Reliabilities

Table 1 presents the means, standardized deviations, Cronbach's alphas, and inter-correlations for all variables used in the current study. All Cronbach's alpha coefficients were above .75, which indicated that all subscales used in the current study possessed satisfactory internal consistency reliability. In addition, all variables were found to moderately correlate with each other.

SEM Analysis

To conform with the frequently advocated two-step approach to SEM (Kline, 2005), the overall measurement model was checked. Once the overall model is deemed acceptable, the second step is to test whether the data could provide an adequate fit to the structural model. It was found that the measurement model (all latent variables presented in Figure 1 were correlated with each other) demonstrated good model fit to the data in both Sample 1 and Sample 2 (see Table 2). Mardia's (1970) coefficient was employed to examine the multivariate normality of the data in the two samples. If the critical ratio of Mardia's coefficient of multivariate kurtosis is more than 1.96, the multivariate normality of the data would be considered being broken. Inspection of the Mardia's coefficients suggested that the data of the two samples departed from multivariate normality (Mardia's multivariate kurtosis = 44.14, p < .01 and 43.06, p < .01, respectively). Subsequently, to follow the recommendations of Byrne (2010), all SEMs were conducted using maximum likelihood estimation coupled with bootstrapping procedures. According to Preacher and Hayes (2004), this study used 1,000 bootstrap samples, with replacement based on the original sample.

The structural model tested in both Sample 1 and Sample 2 demonstrated acceptable model fit to the data, although the CFIs were slightly lower than the criteria for good fit (see Table 2). It was found that autonomy support significantly correlated with the need satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Furthermore, the satisfaction of autonomy and competence was significantly associated with exercise intrinsic motivation (see Figure 2). AMOS only provides a bootstrapping test for the sum of the multiple mediator effects, and does not provide a test of each mediator. Therefore, the Phantom latent model approach (Macho & Ledermann, 2011) was employed to estimate the indirect effect of autonomy support via each specific need. In Sample 1, the structural model explained 53% of the variance in intrinsic motivation. The total indirect effect of autonomy support on intrinsic motivation is .37 (BC 95% 0= 261-.526). The indirect effects via autonomy and competence on intrinsic motivation are .277 (BC 95% CI = .171 -.436) and .098 (BC 95% CI=.017-.188), respectively. In Sample 2, the structural model explained 42% of the variance in intrinsic motivation. The total indirect effect of autonomy support on intrinsic motivation is .40 (BC 95% CI= .29-.511). The indirect effects via autonomy and competence on intrinsic motivation are .247 (BC 95% CI = .115-.412) and .130 (BC 95% CI = .024-.301), respectively. The standardized estimates of the structural model tests are presented in Figure 2.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Invariance Analysis

To further elucidate the relationships identified in SEM analysis, a sequential model testing approach was used via multiple-group SEM to determine whether the structural model was invariant across samples (Sample 1 and Sample 2). Table 3 displays the goodness-off-it indices for all multiple-group models tested in the invariance analysis. It was found that the unconstrained model (M1) displayed an acceptable model fit to the data. When factor loadings (M2: measurement weights) were constrained across samples, compared with M1, the change in [chi square] was not significant, and the change in CFI value was less than .01. These results supported the invariance of the factor loadings across samples. When the factor loadings and structural coefficients (M3: structural weights) were constrained across samples, compared with M2, the change in [chi square] was not significant, and the change in CFI value was also less than .01, indicating that the structural weights were also equal across samples. These findings of the invariance testing suggested that the structural model was invariant (measurement weights and structural weights) across the two samples of Chinese university students in Hong Kong.

Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to examine whether students' perception of teachers' autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction in physical education (PE) classes would have trans-contextual associations with their intrinsic motivation toward exercise outside of PE class. The stability of the relationships across samples from the same population was also explored. The results of the SEM analysis suggested that teachers' autonomy support would be beneficial to students' satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in PE class (H1). In addition, it was found that the satisfaction of autonomy and competence, but not relatedness, in PE class was significantly associated with their exercise intrinsic motivation outside of PE class (H2). Furthermore, the results of multi-group SEM analysis suggested that the relationships among the variables were stable across the two samples of Chinese university students in Hong Kong (H3).

Although Taylor and Ntoumanis (2007) found that the relationship between PE teachers' autonomy support and students' satisfaction of competence in PE class was non-significant, the current study revealed that students' perception of teachers' autonomy support significantly correlated with students' satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in PE class, which is consistent with findings of other studies (e.g., Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2006; Standage & Gillison, 2007; Standage et al., 2012; Taylor & Lonsdale, 2010). The results suggested that teachers' autonomy supportive teaching style would be beneficial to students' satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in PE class. This implies that an autonomy-supportive teaching style should be encouraged among PE teachers because it would facilitate students' satisfaction of basic psychological needs in PE class, which will result in positive outcomes. The results extend previous findings regarding the effect of autonomy supportive motivational style on satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs among Chinese university students in Hong Kong. Furthermore, a previous study among newly qualified teachers indicated that an autonomy supportive teaching style could be taught and learned (Tessier, Sarrazin, & Ntoumanis, 2010). Therefore, the findings from the current study together with previous evidence suggest that the incorporation of need supportive teaching style training into pre-teacher training programs will be greatly beneficial for the cultivation of effective and qualified PE teachers.

In the present study, it was found that students' satisfaction of autonomy and competence, but not relatedness, in PE class was significantly associated with their intrinsic motivation toward exercise outside of PE class. Although no previous study has purposely examined the relationships across domains, previous studies (e.g., Standage et al., 2012) did find that the satisfaction of autonomy and competence, but not relatedness, in PE indirectly predicted autonomous motivation toward exercise outside of PE class. Previous results suggested that the transference of motivational manipulation (i.e., autonomy support) across related contexts may also depend on the satisfaction of basic psychological needs within and across domains. Therefore, the current study examined the cross-contextual associations between students' satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in PE class and their intrinsic motivation towards exercise outside of PE class. The current study extends the extant literature by providing evidence that students' satisfaction of autonomy and competence in PE class is cross-contextually associated with their intrinsic motivation towards exercise outside of PE class. However, it should be noted that only intrinsic motivation was examined in the current study. This is because there is strong theoretical (i.e., Cognitive Evaluation Theory; Deci, 1975) and empirical support for the relationships between autonomy support, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and intrinsic motivation within the same context. Furthermore, previous findings on relatedness from Chinese populations (e.g., Bao & Lam, 2008; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999) suggest that relationship between relatedness and intrinsic motivation deserves further investigation among Chinese populations. Although other types of regulations (e.g., identified and integrated regulations) have been found to be beneficial in exercise settings, no specific theoretical assumptions have been made regarding the relationships between the satisfaction of relatedness and identified or integrated regulations, within or across domains. Future study could also explore the relationships between satisfactions of basic psychological needs and identified or integrated regulations, within and across domains.

It was found that students' satisfaction of relatedness in PE class was not related to their exercise intrinsic motivation outside of PE class, which provided support for the hypothesis proposed in this study. However, the interpretation of this relationship should be made with caution. On the one hand, this non-significant relationship may be considered to constitute support for the theoretical assumption that autonomy and competence play a critical role, while relatedness plays a distal role, in the prediction of intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, the non-significant relationship may exist because the satisfaction of relatedness in PE class is too contextually specialized to be transferred from one context to another. Although the satisfaction of the three psychological needs is the result of the interaction between individuals and social environments, compared with autonomy and competence, relatedness seems to be more involved in the interaction per se. Therefore, the effect of the satisfaction of relatedness derived from the interactions within one context may not necessarily be evident in other contexts. Furthermore, previous studies (Bao & Lam, 2008; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999) suggested that the relationships between perceived choice or autonomy and intrinsic motivation were moderated by relatedness among Eastern and Chinese children. Thus, researchers who are interested in the application of SDT among Chinese people should further investigate the benefits (e.g., intrinsic motivation) of satisfaction and frustration of relatedness among Chinese people.

Model identification may be influenced by characteristics of a particular sample (e.g., sample size, sample heterogeneity), while a multiple-group SEM analysis strategy could be utilized to address this limitation. The results from multiple-group SEM analysis revealed that the relationships between the variables of interest in this study were stable across two samples from the same population, which provided more convincing evidence for the relationships among the variables of interest.

Limitations and Future Research

Although the present study has made an important contribution to the application and extension of the SDT in the Hong Kong Chinese population, several limitations should be recognized. First, the participants in the current study are Chinese university students, and thus the conclusions may not be generalizable to other Chinese populations. Future studies are needed among different Chinese populations, such as working people, the elderly, and adolescents. Second, only intrinsic motivation was examined which may constitute a limitation of the current study. Future study may also investigate the trans-contextual effect of satisfaction of psychological needs on other types of autonomous motivations (identified and integrated regulations), which will provide a more holistic picture of the cross-contextual effects of satisfaction of psychological needs on motivation. Third, only within-person effect (student-level) was examined in this study. Future study is encouraged to adopt within- and between-person designs to determine the relationships at both the student and class level. Moreover, only autonomy support was examined as the social factor that influences the satisfaction of basic psychological needs in the current study. Therefore, further empirical investigation is required to explore other social factors advanced within SDT, such as structure and involvement. These two elements have been proposed to support internalization, growth, and true self-regulation when accompanied by autonomy support (Standage et al., 2012). In addition, the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution because the current study employed a cross-sectional design which cannot make causal conclusions. For this reason, the adoption of an experimental design and longitudinal design is recommended in future investigations of the research question.

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Jing Dong Liu and Pak-Kwong Chung

Department of Physical Education, Hong Kong Baptist University

Address correspondence to: Jing Dong Liu, Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University. E-mail: jdliu@hkbu.edu.hk Table 1 Descriptive Statistics, Cronbach's alphas, and Correlations of Variables in the Current Study Variable Range [alpha] M SD 1. PAS 1-7 0.91 4.45 0.89 (0.90) (4.35) (0.88) 2. AUT 1-5 0.76 3.19 0.66 (0.78) (3.13) (0.7) 3. COM 1-5 0.83 2.72 0.78 (0.81) (2.67) (0.74) 4. REA 1-5 0.88 3.26 0.79 (0.86) (3.23) (0.74) 5. IM 0-4 0.87 2.26 0.81 (0.88) (2.31) (0.78) Variable 1 2 3 4 1. PAS 2. AUT 0.43 (0.48) 3. COM 0.40 0.70 (0.46) (0.77) 4. REA 0.36 0.53 0.45 (0.43) (0.51) (0.51) 5. IM 0.32 0.65 0.56 0.37 (0.38) (0.59) (0.54) (0.38) Note. All correlations are significant at the 0.01 level. Values in parentheses were for Sample 2. PAS=perceived autonomy support; AUT=autonomy; COM=competence; REA=relatedness; IM=intrinsic motivation. Table 2 Goodness-of-fit Statistics of Measurement and Structural Model RMSEA [chi square] df CFI RMSEA 90% CI SRMR Measurement model Sample 1 344.23 179 0.94 0.06 0.05- 0.07 0.05 Sample 2 305.99 179 0.95 0.05 0.04- 0.06 0.04 Structural model Sample 1 505.60 183 0.898 0.08 0.07- 0.09 0.08 Sample 2 505.98 183 0.899 0.08 0.07- 0.10 0.07 Table 3 Goodness-of-fit Statistics of Invariance Testing Models across Samples [DELTA] [chi square] df [chi square] M1: unconstrained 1011.58 366 -- M2- measurement weights 1024.34 382 12.76 M3: structural weights 1028.73 388 4.39 [DELTA]df CFI ACFI RMSEA M1: unconstrained -- 0.90 0.06 M2- measurement weights 12 0.898 0.002 0.06 M3: structural weights 6 0.896 0.002 0.06