Parents as children's socializing agents in youth soccer.

Jambor, Elizabeth A.

In the youth sport literature, parental influences and socialization are often noted (Brown, 1985; Brustad, 1992; Higginson, 1985; Lewko & Greendorfer, 1988). Parents may be instrumental in determining children's sport involvement. Parents may often be the key socializers in children's sport participation (Lewko & Greendorfer, 1988). In support of the idea of the influence of parents in sport, research has noted that parents play a central role in early and middle childhood (Lewko & Greendorfer, 1988; Higginson, 1985). This coincides with the time children begin sports participation. According to the research, parents influence their children in many ways. The parents' value of sport is related to children's participation (Bergerone, Cei, Ceridone, & Formica, 1985). The family environment is often associated with children's sport involvement (Yee & Flanagan, 1985).

Research has investigated the behaviors of coaches as socializing agents in children's sport (Horn, 1985), yet research related to parents is limited (Brustad, 1992). It is known that parents provide social support (Brown, 1985) and influence physical activity levels (Brown, Frankel, & Fennell, 1989). Despite the knowledge of parents influencing sport participation, little is known about the parental influence within a specific sport. Perhaps the parents of children in a specific sport (i.e., soccer) exhibit certain characteristics, as do the children who choose to participate in that sport. It may not be as simple as classifying all youth sports into one group. In addition to these differences in characteristics, parents of children participating in a specific sport may be seeking certain benefits from that particular youth sport. Likewise, what parents want out of children's sport participation may play a part the socialization process. based on the issues of parental involvement in sport and the differences between the sports, the purpose of this study was to examine various demographic characteristics and opinions of parents in relation to children's participation in competitive youth soccer versus participation in other youth sports. It was hypothesized that parents of children in competitive youth soccer would be demographically and characteristically different from parents of children who do not participate in soccer. Additionally, it was hypothesized that parents of participating children would perceive sport participation and benefits derived from that participation differently than parents of non-participating children.

Methods

Participants

Participants for this study were 165 parents of children between the ages of 5 and 10, inclusively. Parents were recruited from three elementary schools in and around a large metropolitan area. Youth sport programs were prominent in all areas and included a variety of sport options, such as baseball, basketball, gymnastics, soccer, and swimming. Youth sports programs were possible year round due to seasonal conditions and availability. Of the parents, 111 were mothers, 54 were fathers, and 46 parents had children participating in youth soccer. Additional demographics are reported in the Results section.

Instruments

Based on the results of a pilot study, the questionnaire for the primary investigation was constructed and put into five sections: (1) demographics; (2) types and levels of children's sport participation; (3) benefits from participation; (4) parental behaviors in children's sport; and (5) parental opinions of children's sport.

A pilot study, using an open-ended format, assisted in constructing the questionnaire used for the primary investigation. From this pilot study, lists were generated from the responses in each section, with the exception the demographic section. As suggested by Thomas and Nelson (1990), using open-ended questions often enables one to better construct closed questions. The open-ended questionnaire included: (a) demographic questions, such as age and gender of parents and children, parents' sport and physical activity participation, occupation, and income; (b) questions inquiring about children's sport participation, as in which sport and at what level; (c) questions asking for reasons for children's sport participation, such as why should children participate and what do they get out of it; (c) questions related to parental behaviors in children's sport, such as what specific things do they do related to their child's sport participation; and (e) questions related to parental opinions of children's sport, such as what do children learn from sports, coaches behaviors, and sport program qualities. based on the results of the pilot study, it was believed that the lists used for the primary questionnaire would ascertain the desired information. Additionally, the option of "other" was added to each list in order for parents to respond with any answer not already provided by the list.

Procedures

Parents were provided questionnaires in various settings: sporting events, school meetings, and home via the child. Parents were asked to complete the demographic information form and the checklists related to children's sport. Parents were informed it was not necessary that their child participate in sports, specifically soccer, to participate in the study. Parents completed the questionnaires and returned them to the researcher.

Results

Parents Demographics

Since the main focus and design of the present study was to investigate the parents involved in youth soccer versus other youth sports, it was not consequential that children complete the questionnaires. Parents provided the children's participation information because children were not asked to respond to questionnaires.

Demographics revealed that generally parents were: Caucasian (80%); married (80%); age 22-49 years (M = 36.00; SD = 5.31); educated with at least a Bachelor's degree (68%); employed in a professional position (90%); and making over $35,000 per year (88%). Additionally, the majority of parents (71%) previously participated in sports, 22% currently participated in sports, and 44% currently participated in a regular exercise program. Only 10% of parents coached a youth sports team. Parents of the soccer players were very similar demographically to the entire parent sample.

Of the sample, 53% were girls and 47% were boys, ranging in age of 5 to 11 years (M = 8.47; SD = 1.50). For this sample, 75% participated in sports and 25% did not participate. Participating children were involved primarily in soccer, baseball, and swimming/diving. All of the sport participating children were involved in organized and competitive levels of sport. Examples of sport organizations were Little League Baseball, Pop Warner Football, Bitty Basketball, youth soccer leagues, and swim clubs. The children involved in competitive youth soccer (17 females; 29 males) were demographically similar to the other children in the sample with the exception of the other sports in which they participated.

Youth Soccer and Parental Differences

A MANOVA technique was used to determine if and where demographic differences existed between parents of soccer participating children and parents of non-participating children. Results indicated no significant differences between parents of participating children and parents of non-participating children (p = .07). There two groups of parents were not found to be demographically different. Additionally, no differences existed between parents in relation to their past soccer experience (p = .53). Only 13 out of the total 165 parents previously participated in soccer.

Youth Soccer and Parent Reported Participation Benefits

A MANOVA technique was used to determine if differences existed between parents of soccer participating children and parents of non-participating children on the benefits parents believe are derived from youth sport involvement. Results indicated significant differences between parents of participating children and parents of non-participating children, Wilks's A = 5.18, p [less than] .001. Individual ANOVA techniques revealed differences in several areas: activities are age appropriate, F(1, 164) = 13.42, p [less than] .003; child receives health benefits from participation, F(1, 164) = 12.06, p [less than] .0007; child receives recreational benefits from participation, F(1, 164) = 12.87, p [less than] .0004; positive past experiences, F(1, 164) = 22.41, p [less than] .0001; pleased with coaches, F(1, 164) = 5.88, p [less than] .02; skill level appropriate, F(1, 164) = 9.28, p [less than] .003; easily accessible location, F(1, 164) = 8.96, p [less than] .003; many available programs, F(1, 164) = 5.10, p [less than] .03; and participation fits into family schedule, F(1, 164) = 13.50, p [less than] .0003. For all benefits noted, parents of participating children noted these benefits with a greater frequency than did parents of non-participating children. Table 1 provides the list of benefits sought by parents, along with mean values and significant differences.

Youth Soccer and Parental Opinions and Behaviors

A MANOVA technique was used to discover differences between parents of soccer participating children and parents of non-participating children on opinions and behaviors related to children's sport participation. Results indicated significant differences existed on these variables, Wilks's [Lambda] = 4.25, p [less than] .001. Individual ANOVA techniques indicated differences on four opinions and three behaviors. Differences in parental opinions related to sport participation included: child learns values from sport participation, F(1, 164) = 4.08, p [less than] .05; child is best athlete in group, F(1, 164) = 3.95, p [less than] .05; program meets child's needs, F(1, 164) = 10.29, p [less than] .002; [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] and many adult friends with children in same program, F(1, 164) = 4.77, p [less than] .03. The differences in behaviors included: spend time working with child to improve skills, F(1, 164) = 3.97, p [less than] .05; willing to financially support child's participation, F(1, 164) = 4.57, p [less than] .03; and attend most games and practices, F(1, 164) = 7.52, p [less than] .007. For all of the above opinions and behaviors, parents of participating children verified a stronger support than did parents of non-participating children. Table 2 provides a list of parents' opinions/behaviors related to children's sport participation, along with mean values and significant differences.

Discussion

Based on the results of this study, demographic differences between parents whose children participated in youth soccer and parents whose children do not participate in soccer did not exist. These results failed to completely support the first hypothesis that these two groups of parents would be demographically different. Additionally, no differences existed in previous parental sport participation, notably in soccer. Only 13 of the 165 parents had ever participated in soccer. This finding contradicts the research of Wold and Anderssen (1992). [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 2 OMITTED] These researchers reported that the sport participation of parents was significantly related to children's sport participation. Soccer appears to be a sport where parents are supportive but not necessarily role models of specific sport behavior. This could be due to the relative newness of soccer to the US and the recent success of US soccer teams in international competition. Additionally, the socialization process in soccer or the influence parents exhibit related to sport is not only physically modeled but occurs in other ways (Ommundsen & Vaglum, 1991). The present study would indicate that the socialization process goes beyond physical role models in that very few parents actually participated in soccer and children are participating in a sport not previously participated in by their parents.

Subsequent results indicated differences between parents of soccer participating children and parents of non-participating children on the benefits they, as parents, sought from children's sport participation. These findings lend support to the second hypothesis that parents of participating children and parents of non-participating children are different on their perception of benefits related to children's sport. These differences were found in the following perceived benefits: age and skill appropriate activity; receiving health and recreation benefits; positive past experiences; pleased with coaches; accessible location and programs; and congruence with family schedule. For all of these reasons, parents of participating children responded significantly higher than did parents of non-participating children. It appears that the benefits parents seek or the reasons they encourage sport participation are different in the area of soccer than they are in other sporting environments. The competitive youth soccer environment appears to be conducive to these type of benefits. Soccer reportedly incorporates fitness and fun with its high level of physical movement and involvement of participants. This may be the reason for the health and recreation related benefits. Soccer is also different in that it does not pit children of vast physical differences against one another as may happen in football or basketball. This may be the reason for the age and skill appropriateness sought by parents. In the sample area, there were several parks that hosted practice and competition sessions. This would make it very convenient and accessible for the parents. Finally, the positive feelings cited for past experiences and coaching personnel appears strong in the soccer environment. It is beyond the scope of the present study to explain the children's motives for wanting to participate, but it is evident that some parents of participating children encouraged their children to participate in soccer because they experienced it as a positive and worthwhile environment.

Further differences were found between parents of soccer participating children and parents of non-participating children in the area of behaviors and opinions. Parents of participating children were more likely to feel that it is important for their child to learn values from sports participation, to be the best athlete, to feel that the program met their child's needs, and to have adult friends involved in the same program. Additionally, there appears to be a distinct difference between parents of participating children and parents of non-participating children in their involvement in children's sport. Parents of children in youth soccer were more willing to financially support the sports participation, were more likely to attend games and practices and were more involved in the skill improvement of their children. The importance of sport participation, specifically soccer, relates to these direct behaviors in regards to children's' sport participation.

Apparently, parents of participating children feel soccer participation is very important in their children's lives. These parents have sought out programs that are age and skill appropriate that meet their children's needs. The parents also value the programs for the experience, the coaching and the values their children are learning. They support their children and these programs through attendance to events, purchasing equipment and other related items, and interaction with their children to increase their soccer performance. A final issue related to the benefits is the value parents of participating children put on having personal friends involved in their child's sport program. Perhaps a soccer environment provides a more social atmosphere for parents than do other sport environments. It appears the uniqueness of a youth soccer environment is conducive to certain wants and needs for both parents and children.

Previous research revealed children list having fun with friends, becoming popular, skill development, and fitness as their main reasons for participating (Ryckman & Hamel, 1993; Stern, Bradley, Prince, & Stroh, 1990). It appears that the reasons parents cited in the present study are similar to those of children noted in previous studies in that parents cited personal friends involved in the same soccer programs, health and recreation benefits for their children, and working with children to improve sports skills. Perhaps in addition to physically modeling behaviors, parents are socializing their children into soccer via attitudes, beliefs, and values. Kendall and Danish (1994) reported that support, encouragement, and role-modeling were ways in which parents influence their children's sport participation.

It appears that parents whose children participate in youth soccer differ from those parents whose children do not participate soccer. These differences may be the initial socializing reasons why some children do or do not involve themselves in soccer. Parents do influence children's sport participation in many ways (Kendall & Danish, 1994). Research supports the contention that children participate in sports, specifically soccer, due to the influence of the parents (Gould, Feltz, & Weiss, 1985). The present study offers support for the different ways in which children may be socialized into a specific sport.

Future investigations may look at the possible similarities in the opinions of parents and children related to soccer, and sports in general. In the present study, parents felt that soccer programs met children's needs and taught children certain values. Future studies might look at the values children perceive learning from competitive soccer participation to examine the possible similarities with those values perceived by parents. Additionally, investigations might compare the values achieved from soccer versus other youth sport programs.

Parents are powerful socializers and role models of children's sport participation. By better understanding the parent, the child might be better understood. As the results of this study indicate not all parents involved in children's various sports are alike. Increased understanding of what the parents, as role models and socializers, want and expect from specific children's sports programs might help practitioners design programs that meet the needs of both the child and the parent. If parents are the first to introduce a child to a sport or physical activity, having programs that meet the needs and want of the parents might encourage more parents to support their children in participation of soccer and other sport programs.

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