Ultimate Fighting Championship: An Analysis of Fan Involvement and Location of Pay-Per-View Viewership.

Reams, Lamar ; Havard, Cody T.

At different locations and using different methods (e.g., at home, sports bar, unauthorized streaming, etc.). The final purpose of this work is to analyze if yearly PPV viewership differences exist across groups of fans who watch events at different locations. Conceptual results are anticipated to extend the fan behavior literature by eliciting new findings on the involvement, place of viewership, psychological connection, and viewership habits of mediated sport fans. A review of the relevant literature and corresponding hypotheses and research questions follows.

Literature Review

Involvement

Involvement is a multi-faceted construct (Beaton et al., 2011; Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Park & Young, 1983) that assesses the relationships people have with objects, products, or activities in scenarios where information can be processed differently by individuals of varying levels of attachment (Park, Lee, & Han, 2007). Involvement can vary across products and individuals (Laurent & Kapferer, 1985), and situational circumstances and the temporary feelings they elicit can similarly impact its status (Houston & Rothschild, 1978; Richins, Bloch, & McQuarrie, 1992). Specifically in sport, involvement is conceptualized as a sport-related object providing hedonic and symbolic value, as well as playing a central role in a person's life (Beaton et al., 2011; Doyle et al., 2013; Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2004). Behavioral and cognitive outcomes of involvement include loyalty to a brand (Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004), expenditures on products (Bloch, 1993), social identification (Lee & Scott, 2009), and sport fandom as an integral component of individuals' lives (Beaton & Funk, 2008). Solomon (2014) states involvement can "mean different things to different people" (p. 165), and social groups can be based upon a collective shared involvement with a sport object (Stebbins, 2001).

Psychological Continuum Model (PCM)

The psychological continuum model (PCM) is a stage based, multi-dimensional tool used to distinguish fan groups according to their psychological connection with a sport object (Doyle et al., 2013; Filo, Funk, & Alexandris, 2008; Funk & James, 2001; 2006). The framework is comprised of three facets: pleasure, centrality, and sign (Doyle et al., 2013; Funk & James, 2001). Pleasure refers to the enjoyment, or hedonic value received from sport consumption. Centrality is exemplary of a bond, or an internalized and consuming identity the sport activity or sport object has on an individual's lifestyle (Beaton, Funk, & Alexandris, 2009). Sign refers to the "self-expression, value, or level of symbolism of the activity" in one's life (Funk, 2008, p. 66).

As the world leader of combat sports (i.e., mixed martial arts [MMA], boxing, kickboxing, etc.), Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) has experienced tremendous success over the past two decades (Tainsky, Salaga & Santos, 2012a). A direct indicator of interest in the sport are pay-per-view (PPV) viewership numbers (Ashville, 2008; Fowlkes, 2011; Watanabe, 2015), where fans pay for the broadcasted league content (Borland & Macdonald, 2003). For fans to view these events outside of the arena, they must purchase events either through a cable, satellite, or internet provider to watch at home or on an electronic device, or travel to a sports bar that shows the event (some businesses charge entry fees, others do not). Closed-circuit viewing is occasionally available through casinos and movie theaters (Holland, 2015), while a presumably smaller contingency of fans elect to watch using unauthorized websites or mobile streaming applications; in other words, piracy.

Social psychology and consumer behavior research suggests a person's involvement with an object or product represents a degree of personal importance or relevance (Mitchell. 1979; Park & Young, 1986), where greater involvement contributes to increased cognitive and behavioral outcomes (Beaton, Funk, Ridinger. & Jordan, 2011). For sport fans, involvement with a sport object is influenced by personal, product, and situational characteristics (Buccholz & Smith. 1991; Shapiro & Ridinger, 2011). According to Rothschild (1984), involvement promoted by situations can influence "search processing, information processing, and decision making" (p. 217). In the fan behavior literature prior involvement studies have almost exclusively been devoted to live sport attendees (Doyle, Kunkel, & Funk, 2013), in contrast to the dearth of literature focused on the involvement of mediated sport fans.

The lack of empirical attention devoted to the involvement of sport fans who view broadcasted events is noteworthy, as sport fandom is highly involved in nature (Shani, 1997) and exorbitant numbers of fans choose to primarily view sports at locations other than attending the live venue (Gantz, Wang, Paul, & Potter, 2006; Weed, 2007). To that end, across all sports many commentators are beginning to consider mediated sport audiences to be of greater importance than live event attendees (Forrest, Simmons, & Buraimo, 2005; Tainsky, Kerwin. Xu, & Zhou, 2014). primarily because of the reach of broadcasted events, and the high percentage of broadcast revenues derived (Noll, 2007). This is especially relevant for emerging combat sports and their fans, who in previous research have displayed slight differences in motivations (Kim, Greenwell, Andrew, Lee, & Mahony, 2008) and media consumption (Eddy, Reams, & Dittmore, 2016) habits than fans of traditional team sports.

Based on limited knowledge on the involvement of mediated sport fans, this study has three primary aims. First, the purpose of this study is to analyze fan involvement and its contribution to mediated PPV viewership. A secondary purpose of this analysis is to determine if psychological connection differences exist across fans who view PPV events

PCM segmentation stages. At each respective stage of the framework, psychological, sociological, and environmental inputs contribute to a person's connection with the sport object. Funk et al. (2004) broadly categorized antecedents to sport involvement as environmental and individual factors. For example: significant others, cultural influences, environmental activities, self-esteem, and individual interest and values can all

influence a person's involvement. Involvement outcomes are likely to display a "positive linear relationship," as psychological connection increases at each stage (Funk, Beaton, & Pritchard, 2011, p. 271). However, it stands to be noted that involvement and the corresponding outcomes at each stage of the framework may not always increase for every person; leading to inert or bi-directional movement along the model (Beaton & Funk, 2008; Pritchard & Funk, 2006). In other words, due to any combination of life circumstances, a fan could increase, decrease, or maintain his or her stage of involvement (Beaton & Funk, 2008).

The four stages of the PCM are labeled: awareness, attraction, attachment and allegiance. Sport fans at the awareness stage of the PCM are described as having some basic knowledge of the sport object. Because these individuals likely learned about a sporting event from the media or a significant other (i.e., socializing agents; Filo, Funk, & O'Brien, 2011), they have yet to develop an affinity for the object. As such, a sport fan's behavior associated with the object at this stage can best be described as unexpected (Doyle et al., 2013; Funk et al., 2011). In the realm of UFC, an aware fan might only partake in a PPV event because he or she happened to be at a sports bar eating dinner while an event was being shown on the television screens.

The attraction stage is reserved for a sport fan who has developed a liking for a specific sport object (Doyle et al., 2013; Hyatt & Andrijiw, 2008). The appreciation for the object is based upon a fan's assessment that the item fulfills hedonic and other personal and social needs (Filo et al., 2011). Although the fan's involvement with the object is progressing at this stage, precise behavioral habits can be unstable. For example, a person may gain an appreciation for watching PPV events, but may only do so when asked by other friends who are more highly involved fans.

Individuals at the attachment stage of the PCM are those who have developed an increasing, intrinsic connection with the sport object. Involvement has progressed to a level where emotional, functional and symbolic meanings are being substantiated (Funk & James, 2006). In fact, fans may become attached to specific points, or aspects of the sport object that contribute to behaviors (Doyle et al., 2013; Lock, Taylor, Funk, & Darcy, 2012). For example, a UFC fan may become attached to a fighter, the organization as a whole, the sport, or the level of MMA competition (Reams, Eddy, & Cork, 2015; Trail, Robinson, Dick, & Gillentine, 2003). Due to the importance of the psychological connection, fans at this stage are less likely to be influenced by external socializing agents. Moreover, at this higher stage constraints become less influential in restricting behavioral outcomes.

Finally, fans at the allegiance stage of the PCM display the strongest cognitive connection and involvement with the sport object. The relationship at this stage is believed to be the most stable and predictable, thereby contributing to positive attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. As a result, allegiant individuals are more likely than fans at any other stage of the framework to maintain a favorable disposition towards the sport object of interest (Doyle et al., 2013; Funk et al., 2011 ; Funk & James, 2006).

Although the model is considered to be theoretically sound in its application to both active (i.e., sport participant) and passive sport behaviors (i.e., sport fans who attend games or watch at home; Beaton et al., 2009; Stewart, Smith, & Nicholson, 2003), existing analyses employing the model have primarily examined sport participants (cf. Beaton et al., 2009; Beaton et al., 2011; Funk et al., 2011). Settings where the tool has been examined include analyses of the involvement of marathon runners (Beaton et al., 2011), recreational golf players (Funk et al., 2011), a single sport fan (de Groot & Robinson, 2008), and live event sport spectators (Doyle et al., 2013). Doyle et al. (2013) researched rugby spectators at the team and league levels, finding both attitudes (favorable) and behavioral outcomes (television viewership for live event attendees) increased at each stage of the model.

Mixed Martial Arts Fan Behavior

Early MMA fan behavior literature primarily centered on motives and demand factors contributing to live event attendance (Andrew, Kim, O'Neal, Greenwell, & James, 2009; Kim et al., 2008; Kim, Andrew, & Greenwell, 2009; Tainsky, Salaga, & Santos, 2012b). More recent research on the sport has evolved to also examine demand factors contributing to PPV viewership (cf. Reams & Shapiro, in press; Tainsky et al., 2012a; Watanabe, 2012; 2015) and outcomes related to league and fighter points of identification (cf. Brown, Devlin, & Billings, 2013; Devlin, Brown, Billings, & Bishop, 2013; Reams et al., 2015; Reese & Bennett, 2011). Overarching implications from these studies indicates that greater fan identification contributes to an increased likelihood to purchase sponsors' and league products. Empirical research related to mediated MMA fan behavior, albeit less robust, has found combat sports fans to be mostly young, educated, Caucasian males, motivated by vicarious thrill, the opportunity to watch and bond with a large group, and the skills and techniques displayed by fighters (Cheever, 2009). Further, the more favorably a consumer perceives MMA, the more likely he or she is to use combat sports media (Lim, Martin, & Kwak, 2010). Established from the preceding involvement and MMA fan behavior literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: UFC fans will report statistically significant, greater PPV viewership from the awareness to attraction, attraction to attachment, and attachment to allegiance stages in comparison to the past one year.

H2: UFC fans will report statistically significant, greater anticipated PPV viewership over the upcoming year from the awareness to attraction, attraction to attachment, and attachment to allegiance stages.

Fans of UFC can view PPV events via one of several methods: paid at home on a television or electronic device, at a sports bar, or by watching on an unauthorized stream. Previous research indicates suggests sport fans who view in different locations are not all the same (Gantz & Wenner, 1995). For example, fans who view in public places might be more inclined to choose these locations for the improved social experience (Fairley & Tyler, 2012). Moreover, viewing sports can be experiential in nature (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2014), and watching events in some locations can be considered riskier than in others (e.g., sports bar vs. at home; Havitz & Howard, 1995). Because of individual differences and dissimilar characteristics associated with the various methods of PPV viewership (e.g., the electric atmosphere of a packed sports bar vs. watching with a few friends at home), and the importance of "recognizing the contextual influences and antecedents to involvement" (Beaton et al., 2011, p. 128), it was deemed appropriate to analyze the specific facets of involvement across fans who view at different locations.

RQ1: Do UFC fans differ on pleasure, sign, or centrality across primary locations of PPV viewership?

Eastman and Land (1997) advised researchers to avoid marginalizing all sport fans to only one method of behavior (i.e., live spectatorship), a sentiment Gantz and Wenner (1995) supported when they cautioned fans should not exclusively be viewed as members of a single, large contingency of individuals. In part, this was suggested because of the diverse patterns of behaviors displayed across fan types. For example, the casual versus superfan, fans who purchase season tickets versus those who watch at home, and individuals who attend live contests compared to those who elect to view at sports bars for cost-saving purposes (Eastman & Land, 1997). Based upon prior literature, UFC fans could differ in their viewership patterns across the various methods of watching events.

RQ2: Do UFC fans who watch at home, sports bars, or unauthorized streams differ on the past year's PPV viewership?

RQ3: Do UFC fans who watch at home, sports bars, or unauthorized streams differ on their anticipated annual PPV viewership?

Method

Online survey research design was used to gather involvement, viewership, and demographic data from UFC PPV fans. The sample for this study was specifically drawn from online, MMA message boards where both the sport and the league are frequent topics of discussion (i.e., sherdog.com, mixedmartialarts.com). The inherent nature of modern web technologies contributes to sport organizations, brands, and fans of varying involvement levels discussing sport online. As such, examining the involvement construct across this population of fans provided a plausible design for the present study. Perhaps most important, online data collection has proven to be efficient and effective, in addition to providing an unprecedented ability to reach target individuals (Koch & Emrey, 2001 ; Van Selm & Jankowski, 2006).

Procedure and Participants

A purposive, non-probability sample of adult UFC fans (aged 18 and over) was collected. At the beginning of data collection, a thread containing the link to the survey was posted by the lead researcher on the message boards of the popular MMA news websites. After the conclusion of the six week data collection period, 454 surveys were collected--49 were removed due to missing data, yielding a dataset of 405 participants for analysis. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22 software.

The majority of the sample (N = 405) ranged in age from 18 to 35 (n = 347; 86%). Respondents were predominantly single (n = 271 ; 67%), Caucasian (n = 274; 68%) males (n = 362; 89%), who hold a bachelor's degree (n = 130; 32%). Thirty-five percent (n = 142) of the sample reported earning less than $49,999 USD on an annual basis. Sixty-three percent (n = 257) of respondents reported primarily watching UFC PPV events at home, 24% (n = 97) at sports' bars, and 13% (n = 51) reported viewing using an alternative method. Fifty-seven percent (n = 231) of respondents reported spending a maximum of $50 on food and beverages per UFC PPV event. These demographic data align closely with previously collected data from MMA fans (Brown et al., 2013; Cheever, 2009; Eddy et al., 2016; Macintosh & Crow, 2010; Reams et al., 2015).

Survey Instrument

The survey instrument was designed to gather fans' involvement, location of PPV viewership, expenditures, and demographic information. Fan involvement was measured utilizing an adapted version of Funk and James' (2001; 2006) PCM. Each of the three facets (pleasure, centrality and sign) were measured with three items each (nine total) on a seven point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree). Three sample items of the adapted PCM read, "I really enjoy watching UFC PPV events," "I find a lot of my life organized around watching UFC PPV events," and "Watching UFC PPV events says a lot about who I am." Previous studies found the facets of the PCM to display good internal construct reliability, with Cronbach alpha scores ranging from .76 to .92 (Beaton et al., 2011; Doyle et al., 2013). The behavioral outcomes were measured using a single item for previous UFC PPV viewership, and a separate item for anticipated UFC PPV viewership. Demographic items pertained to age, gender, annual income, marital status, and education. Location of viewership was assessed with a single item asking where the respondent primarily watches PPV events (e.g., home [television or electronic device], restaurant/bar establishment, or other method), and an additional item asking how much money they spend on items related to UFC PPV events (e.g., food, drinks, etc.).

Analysis

Descriptive statistics were computed and analyzed for the demographic data. Next, reliabilities were computed for the PCM facets. Following these initial steps, the segmentation procedure established by Doyle et al. (2013) was implemented by computing each respondent's mean score on each facet of the PCM.

Scores for each facet are categorized as low (< 4.5), medium (4.5-5.75), or high (> 5.75). For example, a respondent who had scores of M = 4.79 (pleasure), M = 5.76 (centrality), and M = 3.79 (sign), would have a corresponding profile of Medium, High, and Low. Taking the three scores together (pleasure, centrality and sign), twenty-seven unique profiles are possible and determine what stage the individual is designated on Funk's (2008) staging chart.

To test H1 and H2, an analysis of variance (ANO VA) was conducted. For H1, PPVs viewed over the past year were used as the dependent variable. In the H2 model, PPVs anticipated to be viewed over the upcoming year were used as the dependent variable. For both hypotheses, the distribution of the four stages of the PCM were used as the factors.

For RQ1, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed. The three level factor in the general linear model was the respondent's primary place of PPV viewership. The dependent variables were the three facets of the PCM involvement measure: pleasure, centrality, and sign.

For RQ2, an ANOVA was run to test for annual PPV viewership differences across the various primary locations of viewership. The primary place of PPV viewership was the three-level factor in the model, the number of PPVs viewed over the past year was the dependent variable. An additional ANOVA was employed for RQ3, where primary location was the three-level factor, with the anticipated number of PPVs over the upcoming year as the dependent variable.

Results

The data provides support for each facet's internal consistency and acceptable use for applied research (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994): [alpha] = .72 (Pleasure); [alpha] = .78 (Sign); [alpha] = .92 (Centrality). The PCM segmentation procedure (Doyle et al., 2013; Funk, 2008) resulted in the following stage-based distributions: awareness stage (n=25), attraction (n=149), attachment (n=168), and allegiance (n=63). Based on these statistics, the majority of the respondents in this study displayed a moderate psychological connection with the UFC PPVs.

Differences in PPV viewership across the stages of the PCM were assessed in HI and H2. For hypothesis one, number of PPVs viewed over the past year differed significantly, F (3, 401) = 22.38, p < .001. Games-Howell post-hoc comparisons confirmed that beginning at the awareness stage and each subsequent stage thereafter, UFC fans reported watching more annual PPV events (p < .05) (see Table 1). For hypothesis two, number of PPVs anticipated to be viewed over the upcoming year differed, F (3, 401) = 26.67, p < .05. Again, Games-Howell post-hoc comparisons confirmed the significant anticipated viewership differences from awareness to attraction, attraction to attachment, and attachment to allegiance (p<.05) (see Table 1).

Research question one examined facets of involvement differences across primary locations of viewership, while research questions two and three analyzed fan differences in PPV viewership over the past year and anticipated for the upcoming year, employing the same factors. For question one, there w.ere significant involvement differences across the primary locations of viewership, Pillai's trace = .058, F (3, 401) = 3.99, p < .01. Post-hoc univariate analyses showed that UFC fans who primarily watched at home (M =5.84, SD = .77) and sports bar patrons (M = 5.74, SD = 1.05), both experienced more pleasure with the events than those who viewed using alternative methods (M = 5.23, SD = 1.09), F (2, 402) = 10.05, p < .01 (see Table 2). No significant pleasure differences were found between home viewers and sports bar patrons (p > .05). Sign was also significantly greater for home viewers (M= 4.16, SD = 1.19) and sports bar patrons (M= 4.10, SD= 1.26) than for alternative viewers (M= 3.65, SD = 1.32), F (2, 402) = 2.87,p < .05. Home viewers and sports bar patrons did not significantly differ on sign (p > .05). Lastly, no significant difference was found across the groups on the centrality facet.

Results from research question two found annual PPV viewership differences among fans who watch at various locations across the past one year, F (2, 402) = 3.47,p < .05. Post-hoc comparisons indicate that alternative method viewers (M = 11.47, SD = 2.13) watched significantly more events than sports bar viewers (M = 9.61, SD = 2.23; p < .05). No significant annual PPV differences were observed between alternative and home viewers (M = 11.19, SD = 2.13; p > .05), or between home viewers and sports bar patrons. The ANOVA performed for research question three was not significant, meaning there were no differences across the three locations of viewership regarding anticipated event viewing over the upcoming year (see Table 3).

Discussion

Involvement is critical to fan behavior outcomes in sport and leisure (Bennett, Ferreira, Lee, & Polite; 2009; Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004; Mclntyre, 1989; Mclntyre & Pigram, 1992). In combat sports where league organizers rely heavily on the viewership of PPV events (Awad, 2012; Watanabe, 2015), fans' connection with events is vital to its current and future viability. Advancements in technology over the past two decades has expanded the viewing options for fans of combat sports, evolving from limited home opportunities, to the ease of viewing at national restaurant chains or through unauthorized streams on electronic devices. Over a similar timeframe, the academic literature in this area has progressed from analyses of general consumer involvement and fan motivations to attend live events, to studies focused on situational influences and behavioral outcomes associated with mediated viewership. Because of these improvements, researchers have acquired the ability to generate meaningful theoretical and practical implications. Below are the meaningful implications gathered from this analysis on the involvement of an understudied fan group and genre of sports.

Theoretical Implications

In the present study the PCM functioned as hypothesized in its application to UFC fan involvement and PPV viewership. Across the four stages of the model, psychological connections and mediated viewership increased for respondents, a new finding within the realm of this geme of sport. Albeit in different contexts, this result is similar to Doyle et al. (2013), Beaton et al. (2011) and Funk et al. (2011), where attitudinal and behavioral responses increased among rugby spectators, marathon runners, and recreational golfers, respectively. Prior research suggests involvement can vary across product categories (Rothschild, 1979) and for low versus high involvement consumers (Brown et al., 2013; Jerath, Ma, & Park, 2013), both of which are supported in the current study. Given that personal motivations are an antecedent to involvement (Beaton et al., 2011), the significant mediated MMA motives (e.g., drama, knowledge, and aesthetics) identified in Kim et al. (2009) could aid in further explaining fan viewership of UFC PPV events.

Arguably the most significant theoretical implication of this study are the differences in involvement facet scores across fans' primary location of viewership. Previous studies have found involvement differences across gender (Brown et al., 2013; Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000) and generation of birth (Parment, 2012), but not across various situations, or physical locations of viewership for sport fans. We believe this is a meaningful contribution to the literature, as previous research has bypassed examining psychological connection differences across fans who watch events at different locations.

Given the inherent differences associated with each location and method of viewership, the premise of situational involvement would suggest each place's unique environmental factors contribute to fans' decision making processes (Solomon, 2014). Findings from this study revealed that fans who view at home and sports bars experience more pleasure than those individuals who view through alternative methods. Because of this, it seems reasonable to suggest that the socialization opportunities and arena like atmospheres (Eastman & Land, 1997) that exist at these locales could influence their selection of viewership location, supporting extant research that has identified socialization as a motivator for sport fan behaviors (Melnick & Wann. 2011; Trail & James, 2001). Additionally, results from this study could possibly support Weed (2007), who across several studies has suggested viewing sports in arenas and in pubs provides the benefit of generating story-telling experiences for sport fans.

It also seems reasonable to suggest that alternative viewers may not experience high pleasure because they have to pay for UFC contests, unlike other major sports that are typically broadcast on major television networks. Anecdotally, the cost of PPV events has been a complaint of combat sports fans for years (Kidd, 2014), and generally contributes to piracy decision making (Peace, Galletta, & Thong, 2003). To that end, Wakefield and Wann (2006) found that fans who complain about team issues engaged in significantly higher media consumption than less argumentative fans, which in this setting could be influencing the number of fans who choose to view using unauthorized methods. Further, akin to college students who download unauthorized or illegal digital content, the anticipated guilt (Wang & McClung, 2012) of PPV piracy among alternative viewers could decrease the amount of pleasure they experience when they watch through this method.

Alternative viewers also reported lower sign scores than home or sports bar fans. Given that sign indicates a representation of self (Funk, 2008), it could be that fans who view via unauthorized streams do not want others to be aware of their socially deviant actions. Guided by the theory of planned behavior (TPB), Chang (1998) found that consumer attitudes towards piracy were significantly influenced by subjective norms, or how people believe others would perceive their piracy behaviors. This result in conjunction with the low sign score across alternative viewers in this study, could indicate that combat sport fans do not want this socially deviant behavior to be indicative of who they are as people, and the value they associate with such actions.

Regarding annual viewership across locations and methods, fans who watch using alternative sources reported viewing more PPV events over the past year than either home viewers or sports bar patrons, significantly more than the latter. If these findings suggest that UFC fans are similar to young, digital music users, and the ease of pirating and the expensive price of the item positively influences unauthorized viewing behaviors (Bhattacharjee, Gopal, & Sanders, 2003), then how sport leagues deliver mediated content may need to be revised in the near future. In the event that this behavior becomes commonplace for highly involved fans, then a dissipation of the PPV medium may result. Anecdotally it would appear league organizers should initiate anti-piracy messages highlighting the negative outcomes of this fan decision. However, it stands to be noted that similar efforts have not been successful towards reducing the number of unauthorized users of other forms of entertainment content (d'Astous. Colbert, & Montpetit, 2005). Limitations

Like all empirical studies, the present study is not without inherent limitations that may limit the applicability of the findings and implications. First, the present study only examined UFC fans who view the organization's PPV events and use online message boards. A possibility exists that UFC fans who use message boards simply display greater involvement and consumptive behaviors than fans who do not use these forums (Eddy et al., 2016). An additional limitation pertains to the consumer responses to the anticipated UFC PPV viewership item. Because complete UFC fight cards are typically not solidified until weeks, and in some cases days before the event, respondents may not have had the requisite information needed to determine their precise, anticipated PPV viewership. Finally, because of the sensitive nature of alternative viewing, those fans concerned with social desirability may not have accurately reported their primary method of viewership.

Conclusion and Future Research

Because of the emerging status of combat sports and the importance of mediated sport viewership, this sport and group of fans are beginning to receive greater empirical attention in the literature. The present study examined the involvement, situations, and behavioral outcomes of this population of fans. Results gleaned from this study displayed that involvement and location of viewership contributes to how many events fans watch, and pleasure and sign differences exist across fans who view at different locations and using different methods. Consequently, the fan behavior literature has been advanced and future research on the involvement of mediated sport fans is warranted.

An area primed for additional inquiry is the examination of precise psychological and social factors that contribute to primary location of sport viewership. Although anecdotal evidence suggests watching sporting events at sports bars is largely due to the social aspects of these locations, this dynamic should be empirically examined in conjunction with media-related viewership motivations. With respect to general fan involvement, future studies should consider analyzing the specific social and behavioral inputs and outputs evident at each stage. Implications of a study framed in this manner could advance knowledge surrounding the potential unique characteristics of combat sports enthusiasts.

Lamar Reams

Old Dominion University

Cody T. Havard

The University of Memphis

Address Correspondence to: Lamar Reams. 4700 Powhatan Avenue, Office #2012. Norfolk. VA 23529-0201. Email: lreams@odu.edu

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