Perceived effectiveness of heptathletes' mental imagery.

Gregg, Melanie ; Hall, Craig ; Hanton, Sheldon 等

It has been well established in the literature that mental imagery enhances athletes' performances (Driskell, Copper & Moran, 1994; Hall, 2001; Paivio, 1985). This is reflected by the frequent use of imagery reported by athletes (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990) and the inclusion of imagery in mental skills training programs implemented by sport psychologists (e.g., Gould, Petlichkoff, Hodge, & Simons, 1990; Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990). It is not surprising that imagery has been described as the "central pillar of applied sport psychology" (Perry & Morris, 1995, p. 339).

Research has shown that imagery serves both cognitive and motivational functions (cf., Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998; Paivio, 1985). The cognitive specific function of imagery involves the rehearsal of specific sport skills while the cognitive general function of imagery is the rehearsal of game plans, strategies of play and routines. The motivational specific function is used to image the achievement of goals. The motivational general function, which is subdivided into arousal and mastery functions, is used to image general physiological arousal and affect, respectively.

Martin, Moritz, and Hall's (1999) applied model of imagery use in sport suggests that to maximize the effectiveness of imagery the function of imagery used must match the intended outcome. However, there is a need for research to look at what factors, or moderators, cause the functions of imagery to be more effective in some situations than in others. For example, athletes report using motivational imagery more frequently in competition than in training, but why they do so is not fully understood (White & Hardy, 1998). One approach to gaining more insight into why athletes use imagery differently in different situations is to simply ask them. White and Hardy (1998) and Munroe and her colleagues (Munroe, Hall, Simms, & Weinberg, 1998) have used qualitative methods to gain a better understanding of how elite athletes use imagery. They recommend that other sport psychologists should also use this approach to learn more about athletes' use of imagery, since such research will allow sport psychologists to tailor imagery interventions to the individual and provide better support and advice to athletes.

A recent quantitative study by Weinberg and his colleagues (Weinberg, Butt, Knight, Burke, & Jackson, 2003) examined the relationship between the frequency of use and the effectiveness of imagery. They found the more often athletes employed a function of imagery, the more effective the athletes rated that imagery to be. Weinberg et al. (2003) further suggested that research be done assessing the effectiveness of different functions of imagery along with when (e.g., pre-competition, in between attempts, when the athlete is feeling anxious) these functions of imagery are most effective for the athletes. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the nature of the imagery used by elite heptathletes during training and competition, and more specifically why the heptathletes believed their imagery use was effective.

To investigate imagery effectiveness, elite heptathletes were interviewed concerning their use of imagery. Previous studies assessing effectiveness (Weinberg et al., 2003) and enjoyment (Cumming & Hall, 2002) have used a quantitative approach, employing questionnaires as the primary measurement tool. However, Patton (1990) has argued that the responses available on a questionnaire may be restrictive and perhaps not accurately reflective of the respondent's true thoughts, feelings, and opinions. In addition, a respondent might have further information to offer, but the structured and specific nature of the questionnaire makes this supplementary information unattainable. A qualitative methodology overcomes some of these concerns by allowing participants to respond using their "own written or spoken words and observable behaviours" (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984, p. 5). It provides extensive, descriptive data that is not possible to obtain when using quantitative methods. For these reasons, the present study chose to employ a qualitative methodology in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of imagery effectiveness and enjoyment.

Method

Participants

Six national team heptathletes were invited, and agreed, to participate in the study. The heptathlon is an event in track and field that is composed of seven different disciplines (i.e., 100m hurdles, high jump, shot put, 200m, long jump, javelin, 800m), takes place over two days and is contested only by women. The participants ranged in age from 20 to 31 years (M= 25.33 years, SD = 4.32). One of the athletes competed at the Pan American Games, others at Grand Prix competitions, the Dutch National Championships, the World Junior Championships, the World Student Games, and the World Francophone Games. Prior to participation, written informed consent was obtained from each participant.

Interview Guide

An interview guide was developed following the procedures sanctioned by several authors (i.e., Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1993; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Hanton & Jones, 1999). Open-ended questions were generated based on the sport imagery literature (Hall et al., 1998; Paivio, 1985; White & Hardy, 1998) and the deliberate practice framework (Cumming & Hall, 2002; Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Helsen, Starkes, & Hodges, 1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996). The interview guide was pilot tested on one national level heptathlete not included in the present study and feedback resulted in minor refinements to improve clarity and flow.

The interview guide (1) was composed of four sections. The first section explained the purpose of the study and outlined the athletes' rights as a research participant. Section two asked the athletes questions about their training regimes and competitive history. Section three focused on the athletes' perceptions of imagery effectiveness. This section began by providing the athletes' with White and Hardy's (1998) definition of imagery; this ensured the athletes were thinking of imagery in a similar way to each other and the interviewer. Questions were asked relating to the effectiveness of imagery in both competition and training settings. Section four provided the athletes with the opportunity to ask questions about the interview experience and to discuss any issues that may have been omitted.

Procedure

Qualitative. One week prior to their interview each participant was asked to reflect on their use and opinions of mental imagery. All of the interviews took place during the preseason, four at a national training camp and the remaining interviews were conducted at the athletes' homes. All the interviews were conducted by the same researcher to ensure consistency. The interviewer was experienced in undertaking qualitative research and was also a nationally competitive heptahlete, who was able to converse at a sport-specific level. The interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes, were audio-taped in their entirety and transcribed verbatim.

Quantitative. Questionnaire data was collected to support and verify the findings extracted from the interviews. The participants completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall et al., 1998). The SIQ was designed to measure the use of cognitive and motivational functions of imagery. The SIQ is composed of 30 questions, with six questions per imagery function (i.e., cognitive specific, cognitive general, motivational specific, motivational general-arousal, and motivational general-mastery). Each item was rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale with anchors of 1 = rarely use that function of imagery and 7 = often use that function of imagery. The SIQ has acceptable psychometric properties; including adequate internal reliabilities with alpha coefficients ranging from .70 to .88, and favorable results for tests of construct validity (Hall et al., 1998).

Analysis

The interviews were analyzed using the computer program QSR NUDIST (Non-numerical, Unstructured Data, Indexing, Searching and Theorizing). The interviews were transcribed verbatim, imported to NUDIST and divided into meaning units. The meaning units were then coded by one of the authors into categories containing similar meaning units. An independent experienced qualitative researcher, familiar with the mental imagery literature, provided consensus validation by independently coding the meaning units into categories. The coding and categorization was then discussed until agreement was reached.

The current study met some of the criteria proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985) that are used to evaluate the credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative studies. Specifically, the researcher who conducted the interviews had prolonged engagement within the "culture" and had a trusting relationship with the participants. Furthermore, triangulation was achieved since a number of researchers worked together to develop the interview guide and analyze the data. Thick description was used so enough detail was provided so that the reader has the opportunity to make his/her own interpretation of the data. Also, quantitative data was collected to provide support for the qualitative analysis. Given the small sample size, the quantitative data resulting from the SIQ was analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results

A framework of imagery effectiveness was constructed from the interviews (see Figure 1). Four main themes emerged as influences on the effectiveness of imagery: relevance, quality, temporal factors, and mental state. Quality was further subdivided into the minor themes of control and senses, while temporal factors were subdivided into level of competition, event, and setting. Each theme is described and supported by direct quotations from the athletes. Descriptive analysis of the SIQ scores demonstrate the athletes used the motivational general-arousal function of imagery most frequently and the motivational specific imagery function least often (see Table 1). These results are discussed in relation to the qualitative findings throughout the results section.

Relevance

The athletes found imagery more relevant for some functions than others. All the athletes described imagery as being very helpful for reducing their pre-competition anxiety. One heptathlete said, "I find that it is good for me. Especially now that I've learned about it and especially in terms of getting calm enough to execute. I was very high strung." These reports were supported by the data from the SIQ indicating the athletes used motivational general-arousal imagery the most frequently of the five measured functions of imagery (see Table 1).

Although the athletes stated motivational general-arousal imagery was generally very effective, one athlete described how she was taught by a sport psychologist to use motivational general-arousal imagery in a way she found quite ineffective: He tried to do the whole you know "find your happy place and go there" and I just couldn't do it, I mean ! tried; I just couldn't be bothered. It just didn't work for me really. I mean I can see the benefits of picturing what to do and then doing it, but as far as you know turning your back to the competition and then closing your eyes and going somewhere the waves are coming up, it just doesn't go with competition for me. I don't know, I just didn't find it useful.

With respect to the other functions of imagery, the athletes reported motivational specific imagery to be the least effective. Not surprisingly, imagery of goals was also rated as the least often used function of imagery on the SIQ (see Table 1). While the heptathletes described using imagery as a tool to develop and reinforce their goals, they found it most effective for short-term or practice goals. One athlete actually explained that imagery was ineffective for attaining her long-term goals:

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED] If I try to picture myself at the Olympics one day, I just can't. Which is kind of bad because I want to get there, but I'm not going to spend my time trying to think of what it would be like at the Olympics because I really don't know and I don't really want to know. If I get there, I get there. It's always good to stay focused on your goals but I don't really use imagery for long-term goals.

Quality

The term quality was used to describe how real or vivid the athletes' images were, the more real and vivid the more effective. For example, the athletes described differences in the quality of their imagery from training to competition, with one heptathlete stating: In competition it's more in-depth, like it's real. The imagery, like I'm really thinking deeply and then seeing these vivid images. In training it's more feeling and seeing but I'm not sure exactly what it's going to be like; it's obviously not so vivid because it might be something new I'm doing.

The athletes' quality of imagery also varied with the different events; events they were most comfortable with had more vivid images associated with them than events the athletes were less adept at.

The athletes reported that as their imagery developed over time, it became more and more effective. This development of their imagery was not very structured. The athletes felt their imagery skills developed along with their physical ability and technical skills. One athlete said, "I think it's definitely gotten better. You pick up stuff as you go along and you have other experiences at higher levels so that kind of makes your imagery better." A couple of athletes did describe learning to use imagery in a more structured manner, such as using video to help form more accurate images of themselves performing. Also, for a few athletes their imagery seemed to be better than their physical capabilities. One heptathlete described her imagery in the following manner: As I get older I'm able to image better. It's funny, as your brain grows in this sport your body falls apart, somehow it's not fair! I understand the use of imagery a lot more and my images are really vivid. I'm able to pick out the essential elements more. Having had a few good performances, I have a reference point for the way that should feel. If I could ever match the performance to what's in the hard drive... I still think I'd be great.

Control. The athletes described how much control they have over their images and image content. With greater control came increased effectiveness. For example one of them stated, "When I first started to use imagery I was seeing myself do the event.... then I became part of that image where I'm feeling that I'm doing it. That's when imagery got way better for me." The heptathletes also talked about being able to control the speed of their images and see them in manageable parts. This notion of focusing on a few key things, rather than a number of images, was mentioned several times. These key images seem to be developed in training sessions and then incorporated into the athletes' competition plans, as the following quote illustrates: ... And that's where working on it in practice and getting it to carry over to competition is important. That's where you need a few little cues to pick up while you're doing it, but if you haven't reached that cue you go off and try to get through it.

These key images appear to be integral to preventing the images from getting outside the athlete's control. All but one of the athletes interviewed indicated they sometimes had difficulty completing their images. When this happened they would try to work through the image again, or leave it and come back to it later. One athlete described an incident of experiencing an incomplete image: Kind of re-write it, see if you can get through it. It seems like, it's kind of like training. When you're doing a shot put, or a throw or something and it's just you know there's something that screws up right in the middle of it but you kind of go okay, go back, do it all over again. So you're focused on, I usually focus on that point where I had a difficult time, to get past that point, to get through it.

Senses. The athletes described the senses involved in their images and which senses make their use of imagery most effective. Although the athletes indicated they primarily employed visual senses, they also stressed the importance of fully experiencing an image as a physical sensation. An emphasis was placed on picturing the competition environment, extending beyond the athlete's physical self, as indicated in the following quote: I usually see myself doing it and the environment, so I picture the environment I'll be competing in, the track or the facility. And again, just using imagery for the specific things I want to focus on for that event.

Rhythm was mentioned repeatedly by the athletes, with one heptathlete stating, "So when I imagine something I can hear the rhythm of the take off, okay, or the rhythm that's involved in hurdles." Another athlete said, "I think about the rhythm, I try to imagine the sound of the rhythm."

Temporal Factors

Temporal factors refer to the amount of time spent imaging, timing of imagery use, and how the time of season influences imagery use and its effectiveness. Imagery was reportedly used most often, and was most effective during the competitive season versus the off-season and pre-competition season. One athlete said: Closer to competition it goes up for sure. Early season, since we're just running hills and lifting there's not much imagery. It's usually when we start doing technical stuff and I don't imagine myself doing hill workouts essentially ever. I just have to get through it and I mean it's such a mental thing just to let your body go and just going through the hard part that ... just get it done.

The athletes used imagery in bed the night before a competition, as part of their warm-up just prior to competing, in between attempts, and during practice sessions. Imagery sessions lasted longest at night, away from the competitive setting and were shortest between attempts during competition.

Competition imagery sessions focused on mainly refreshing the mind and remembering specific sensations, as indicated in this quote: Usually I spend the time before the competition starts thinking of goals, thinking of focuses for that competition and picturing it. And then between jumps it's a couple of seconds right after the jump, couple of seconds before I jump again, clear my mind and then jump.

In contrast, new images were often formed and practiced during a training session. These images were meant to help the athlete experience new sensations, and were later incorporated into competitive settings. For example, one athlete said: I've always used imagery in my training. You have to when you're learning things that are new, that are different ... I picture it, I usually don't sit down and relax and think about it, I usually just try to keep things moving and try to keep the feeling from jump to jump or drill to drill and just think briefly and imagine what it would feel like. And if there's a lot of time in between attempts or whatever then I'll think about it right after I'm told what to do and then I'll take a break and then before I go up again I'll think about it again, picture it, imagine it. So, I'm not using imagery the entire time.

Level of Competition. Both the level (importance) of the competition and whether the athlete was competing in an individual event versus a heptathlon influenced the use of imagery and its effectiveness. One athlete described her use of imagery in different competition settings, "I guess I use it more when it means more. Like if it were nationals or something I would use it more than if it was just an all-comers meet." Another athlete described using different functions of imagery depending on the importance of the competition: Usually at a bigger competition I'm feeling really pumped. I'm feeling really good usually and imagery is used to keep me sharp, keep me focused. And other competitions that aren't so big, sometimes I have to use it more just to keep me focused and keep me in the competition because it's hard when it's really low key. You kind of have to keep on going back to keep your mind from wandering off; you think this is what I have to do, you, think about it, stay focused, whatever, and picture it.

The use of imagery sometimes changed if the athlete was competing in individual events rather than a full heptathlon. During individual events the scheduling of the different events can pose a problem. One athlete described how imagery became less effective in such situations, "You go from a hurdle race, you throw your javelin boots on and you go over; there's no time to use imagery effectively."

Event. Imagery effectiveness varied depending on the type of event. For example, events with multiple trials differed from an event requiring a single effort. This is illustrated in the following quote: When you do shot put you have three attempts, so you have the opportunity to visualize or to capture that between each throw. When you hurdle, when you run a 200, it's a one shot deal, so there's no time to pause and do some imagery, so that has to be done in advance and then just execute the one skill. So, I mean, that's the nature of the heptathlon, it changes what kind of imagery you would use. Different events will also require different levels of arousal ... I think that your imagery follows that.

Not only did the number of attempts affect how the athletes reported using imagery, but so did the technical requirements of the event. For example, one athlete said: I use it more in field events or events that are more technical. And for jumping events I usually see myself doing it, but for throwing events it's more of a feeling ... hurdles I see myself before the competition ... I just focus in the drills that I'm doing things right and then I use imagery to picture the race, not just the good techniques, but picture the race. Maybe broader things like my acceleration and coming out of the blocks and then just picturing myself, a smooth hurdle race but not anything really specific.

Familiarity and comfort with an event changed the effectiveness of imagery. Several of the athletes expressed difficulty with the throwing events, as reflected in their ability to use imagery for those events. Images were easier to form and more accurate when the athlete felt comfortable with the event, as reflected in the following, "It seems that the events that I have more experience in I use more imagery in."

Setting. The frequency and type of imagery used varied from training to competitive settings. The athletes used imagery more frequently in competitive settings than in training situations, and they found imagery more effective if they had used it previously in training.

However, they found it difficult initially to develop these images in training. For example, one heptathlete stated, "It's more effective now, the relationship between the imagery and performance is actually more interrelated than it was when I started." The training environment was a place where the athletes reported being able to hone their images and imagery skills, so they could be effectively applied later in a competitive setting. The athletes described the importance of being comfortable with their images, an example of this being: Training I can use imagery whenever I want. I can picture doing different things I've never used before; in competitions I only picture exactly what I know and what I'm supposed to do.

Mental State

Mental state involved statements made regarding how imagery effectiveness influenced and was influenced by positive or negative mood. The athletes suggested imagery was easier to do and was more effective when they had a positive attitude. An example of mental state influencing imagery use was: If the first day went really well the imagery is usually easier. And it's not so much of a chore, because it is sometimes a chore, and it is more positive. On a bad day, it's just trying to do it, and sometimes it's more of a task, and you're kind of down on yourself or stuff like that, and it's more difficult to see yourself succeed.

Another heptathlete said, "When you have a bit of anxiety, that will affect your imagery, your ability to relax and concentrate on an image." An example provided by an athlete of imagery use influencing mental state was, "Some days you're a champion and Some days you should just stay in bed. Essentially your image of what you're capable of that day is going to influence your performance, your positive thinking."

The athletes described how much mental concentration was required for effective imagery, and how this related to their physical and mental state. Imagery was more difficult on the second day of the competition, when physical and mental fatigue begins to take effect. One athlete stated: The second day I'm much more tired, so I have to be a lot mentally stronger. I'd have to say I have to focus, or concentrate to bring up the imagery a little more actually than the first day, when you're feeling alive and well.

The athletes indicated their mental state also influenced their enjoyment of imagery use. One heptathlete stated: When it's successful, very enjoyable. When it's not successful, and I'm struggling it's, I don't like it at all. I don't. And the thing is, usually everything's negative, when imagery is going well training is going well. It's never my imagery is going so well, why can't I train?

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate why heptathletes believe their use of imagery is effective. All participants in the study indicated imagery was effective inenhancing their performance; however, all the imagery they employed was not considered to be equally effective. Imagery effectiveness varied as a result of fourmain factors: relevance, quality, temporal factors and mental state.

The athletes indicated that the more relevant their images were to their performance, the more effective those images were. Specifically, the athletes indicated using imagery helped reduce pre-competition anxiety, thus motivational general-arousal imagery was described as being relevant to performance. Several imagery research studies employing quantitative methods have reported athletes use the motivational specific function of imagery least often and it is the least effective function of imagery (Hall et al., 1998; Weinberg et al., 2003). The athletes in the present study indicated images of long-term goals were not relevant to an immediate competition. Images of achieving long terms goals were too far away for the imagery to be effective; images that were most related to the present situation, those that were most relevant at the moment, were deemed to be most effective. The athletes further elaborated and explained that the images must be related to the performance, for example images of waves crashing on a beach does not relate to performance on the track. The responses to the questions regarding relevance of imagery suggest images must be specific to what the athlete is doing at the present time for the imagery to be effective.

When learning to use imagery athletes are often encouraged to include multiple senses in their images (White & Hardy, 1998). The heptathletes in the present study indicated images were most effective for them when they included both visual and kinesthetic aspects of imagery. They went on to describe the importance of being able to image the competition environment and to see themselves competing in that environment so things were familiar once they arrived at the competition site. The athletes went on to describe the importance of incorporating rhythm into their images. The mental rehearsal of the rhythm of an event enhanced the effectiveness of that image. This concept of including rhythm as part of an image may be important not just for athletes but performing artists such as musicians and dancers. The athletes described images that they were able to control as being of better quality than images that they were not able to complete or were difficult to change. The greater the control over the image the more effective that image was. Control was maintained by focusing on a few key images rather than the entire competition or even an entire event. Thus, the athletes focused on a few key aspects of their performance rather than an overwhelming number of cues.

Past research has reported that athletes use imagery most often in competition settings (Hall et al., 1990). Furthermore, athletes report imagery to be most effective during competition and less effective in practice settings (Weinberg et al., 2003). This was also reiterated by the heptathletes. However, the heptathletes expanded on these previous findings by explaining that not only did the quantity of images and function of imagery differ from training to competitive settings, but so did the quality of their images. In practice settings the athletes were able to create new images as well as modify previously formed images. The athletes reported using only parts of images during practice, whereas in competition' they were more likely to use images of entire movements or situations. They indicated two reasons for these differences. First, practices are broken down into parts and competitions are kept whole so their imagery reflects this. Second, practice settings are more distracting and have less down-time so the athletes do not have as much time to form complete images as in competitive settings. Thus, because of these differences the heptathletes believed that their imagery was more effective in competition than in training.

Imagery effectiveness also varied with the type of event. The athletes reported imagery to be most effective and, therefore, used it most often in the field events. They also indicated imagery was less effective for hurdles, and not very effective at all for the remaining track events. The reason for these differences is that in the field events and to some extent in hurdles there are opportunities for correction. Track and field is a sport where the coach is not immediately available to the athletes; often they are some distance from the athletes and it is difficult to communicate. As a result the athletes use imagery to help themselves make corrections.

Effectiveness of imagery was dependent upon the athletes' familiarity with the individual events. Previous research indicates that elite athletes use imagery more often than recreational athletes (Salmon, Hall & Haslam, 1994). Although the athletes interviewed were elite heptathletes, they do not perform with equal proficiency in all their events. The heptathletes suggested imagery is easiest to perform and most effective for the events they are most proficient in. They reported difficulty using imagery for their weaker events because they do not know with the same degree of accuracy what they look like performing the event and are less certain what they should be imaging. This familiarity and comfort with the different events may be why recreational or beginner athletes employ imagery less often than elite athletes, as they may have difficulty creating the images.

The athletes' mental state influenced their imagery use and the effectiveness of their images. When the athletes were feeling physically and mentally fresh they found it easiest to form quality images that were positive in nature. Physical and mental fatigue made it more difficult to use imagery and it seemed to take excessive mental concentration to form images. When the athletes were in a positive mood their imagery was positive and effective; when in a negative mood their images reflected this mood.

The present study provides some practical implications for developing imagery interventions with athletes. Images that are most effective should include both visual cues and kinesthetic sensations, with particular emphasis on the sounds and rhythms associated with the event. Because imagery is most effective when athletes are feeling mentally fresh and positive, efforts should be made to ensure athletes are in this frame of mind when they are practicing their imagery, they should also develop skills that will help them reach this mental state. For example, they may use images of something they enjoy, or always feel comfortable with, to evoke positive feelings before they approach their event specific imagery. Due to the differential use of whole versus part images, coaches should reinforce the practice of whole imagery during mock competitions in a practice setting. Situations may also be construed where the athletes practice overcoming difficulties, such as incomplete images.

The use of imagery is dictated to some extent by the athlete's familiarity and comfort with each event. If these elite heptathletes experienced problems forming images of their more difficult events, surely beginner athletes must have comparable difficulty. This may be partially overcome by providing athletes with specific imagery scripts that they may practice to help them develop their imagery skills for a particular event. Without formal instruction athletes use imagery to some extent (Murphy, 1994), but the effectiveness of this imagery may be increased if imagery is developed along with physical skills and athletes are taught to use relevant images at the appropriate time and optimum situations. Finally, the present findings indicate that imagery is a very individual skill; what is very effective for one athlete might be less effective for another. Therefore, it seems sensible to individualize imagery interventions to maximize its effectiveness.

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Melanie Gregg

University of East London

Craig Hall

The University of Western Ontario

Sheldon Hanton

University of Wales Institute, Cardiff

Address Correspondence To: Melanie Gregg, School of Health and Bioscience, University of East London, Romford Rd., Stratford, London, UK El5 4LZ. Email: m.j.gregg@uel.ac.uk

(1) A copy of the finalized interview guide can be obtained from the primary author Table 1. Descriptive statistics' for heptathletes' use of the functions of imagery assessed by the SIQ Mean Standard Deviation Cognitive Specific 4.47 1.19 Cognitive General 4.19 .81 Motivational Specific 3.08 .78 Motivational General-Arousal 4.92 .58 Motivational General-Mastery 4.67 .98