Maximising the proficiency of advanced Japanese language learners in a blended-learning environment: A pilot study.

Tsurutani, Chiharu ; Imura, Taeko

ABSTRACT

Within the blended-learning paradigm (Picciano, Dziuban & Graham, 2014) various attempts have been made to maintain the standards achieved by teaching face-to-face. However, it is often a challenge to incorporate oral communication into language courses with online components. Many practitioners highlight the lack of adequate online speaking activities, particularly in the case of advanced language courses. This paper describes our initial trial to incorporate oral-aural exercises into the online component of a course for Japanese language learners at an advanced level. Our aim was to build students' oral communication skills through active learning as effectively as in face-to-face classroom delivery. Within a blended-learning environment students were given opportunities to conduct project-based learning to improve their proficiency. Students' progress, their comments, and our reflections as instructors will also be discussed. The learners' willingness and readiness for self-study was found to be one of the key factors in achieving a successful outcome.

KEY WORDS

blended learning, active learning, advanced Japanese, speaking, listening, motivation

Introduction

The shift of delivery mode from face-to-face teaching to online and blended learning brought many advantages to language learning and many pedagogical challenges. Salmon (2013) describes 'the truly enormous struggle to make the very best of technologies and the transformation in learning that they can bring' (p. xiv). Today's students have easy access to online materials that are authentic and up-to-date, and a plethora of websites and apps equipped with helpful information and exercises for language learning. Social media and communication technologies such as Skype, Facebook and Twitter are readily available to learners as a means for discussion or to facilitate interaction with instructors. In online environments, technologies exist that can provide opportunities for receptive or mechanical skill development (such as listening or reading online or completing basic writing exercises using typed characters) but more complex, open-ended production activities still require human intervention for appropriate assessment.

In many institutions, advanced courses tend to be small in size and can often face abrupt cancellation. Consequently, universities have difficulty in meeting the needs of students at advanced levels, and are unable to offer niche courses suitable for individual students. Well-designed online components can offer possibilities for advanced students who study on different campuses or institutions, synchronously or asynchronously, therefore building numbers.

We trialled a blended-learning course designed to assist advanced students in the final year of their Japanese language studies to achieve a higher proficiency level through project work. The course promoted active learning for students, equipping them with the skills to pursue their own goals independently through lifelong learning. Students were expected to spend a substantial amount of time studying materials they were interested in, thereby enhancing their motivation and linguistic competence. To this end, we employed a deep-learning approach, which can be described as follows. Deep understanding characterizes deep learning. The concept of a deep approach emerged from phenomenographic studies in higher education, to define a deeper way of reading texts for learning... [this contrasts] deep and surface approaches in terms of meaningfulness. The deep approach is significantly related to an intention to understand deeply. The focus is on what is signified and the arguments proposed, with a linking process to prior information and to everyday experience. Deep processing involves a reconceptualization of reality through a linking process with prior experience and a form of identity-building discussion with the self that is increased in a team. (Tochon, 2014, p. 2).

Our particular focus in this course was the development of the oral-aural skills, which we consider to be neglected in many other online offerings.

Background

Online components in current Japanese advanced courses

Online courses are gaining popularity among second-language learners. As Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson, and Heynik (2011) note: '[w]ell-established technologies, such as the personal computer and internet access, have become nearly ubiquitous for foreign language (FL) learning in many industrialized countries. In addition, relatively new technologies, such as smartphones and other mobile internet-accessible devices, are increasingly available' (p. 70).

In preparation for our trial, we investigated the current situation in online courses offered in Japan, the United States and Australia, which revealed that the majority of courses were focused mainly at beginner and intermediate levels, and their delivery was quite often limited to distance-mode education. Although some advanced online courses are offered in these countries, their activities consisted mainly of reading, translating, writing and submitting compositions online, and listening using web-based materials. In Australia at the time of our investigation (January 2015), the off-campus mode was offered in only three universities.

We also conducted an extensive search for online tools and applications available for Japanese language learners. The most common were Japanese listening practice, JapanesePod 101, Nihongo Den, JASensei and AccelaStudy Japanese (see Appendix 1 for full details). It emerges from the literature that, when students want to develop advanced oral communication skills, gains are due 'without any doubt' to study abroad (Davidson, 2004, 2007 quoted in Blake, 2013). If this is indeed the case, it implies that serious consideration needs to be given to how to nurture and develop oral skills in a blended-learning environment.

Deep learning in a blended-learning environment

There is a growing consensus among higher education practitioners that blended-learning courses enable students to perform better than those in exclusively face-to-face and fully online courses (Glazer, 2012; Johnson, Adams, Becker, Cummins, Estrada, Freeman, & Hall, 2016). The Educause Centre for Analysis and Research study (Dahlstrom, Brooks, Grajek, & Reeves, 2015) revealed that the majority of students favour a balance between online and face-to-face learning in their university studies.

While an approach to online study that focuses on memorising disconnected chunks of new information is suitable for surface learning (Tochon & Druc-Tochon, 2014), a deep-learning approach, in contrast, engages learners in critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration and self-directed learning (Johnson et al., 2016, p. 14). Deep learning focuses on process and experiences, which cultivates a genuine curiosity driven by the students themselves, who then become their own curriculum builders (Tochon & Druc-Tochon, 2014). Thus, the role of the teacher is no longer just as a provider of information but as a facilitator of flexible, supportive learning (Helle, Tynjala, & Olkinuora, 2006; Chun, Kern, & Smith, 2016). It has been found that blended learning provides more time to engage with course materials, encourages reflection, discussion and collaboration with peers, and supports active learning to maximise the value of face-to-face time (Glazer, 2012).

We adapted the deep-learning approach to help students achieve their goals in language study by giving students the opportunity to build their expertise by creating their own curriculum and their own project. This came from the goal to develop independent learners who are confident and responsible for their own learning outcomes and, therefore, more motivated.

This approach was chosen for the following reasons:

1 In an advanced course, the proficiency level of students and their goals in language learning are more diverse than in a beginner's course; it is difficult to choose uniform materials suitable for everyone.

2 Online courses require students' self-management skills and independent planning, which are nurtured through the deep-learning approach.

3 Searching for their own materials increases the time that students are exposed to the Japanese language environment.

We surmised that this approach would encourage more autonomy through online study. This approach does not have textbooks or materials chosen by instructors to introduce pre-determined grammar, vocabulary, content or syllabus (Bishop, 2006; Tochon & Druc-Tochon, 2014). With the full support and guidance of instructors, students plan, implement, evaluate and reflect on their learning to navigate their learning journey in order to pursue their interests and achieve their goals. To incorporate a deep-learning approach, project-based learning, which involves planning, implementing, monitoring and reflecting on learning, was employed to foster a more active learning experience in a blended-learning environment.

Course development

The mixed-mode course was offered in second semester 2015. It comprised an on-campus component for weeks 1 to 3 with the remainder of the course delivered online using video conferencing and the Blackboard learning management system for course information and communication with students. The first three on-campus sessions aimed at making sure that students understood the concept of blended learning and its relationship to the assessment requirements of the course. The online tools the students could use for their self-study, such as Quizlet (digital vocabulary flash cards and lists to remember new words and expressions), online news and online exercises, were introduced.

A proficient Japanese-speaking 'language buddy' was made available to assist students in their language development.

The students studied independently between weeks 4 and 12, following their own study plan with regular online consultation with instructors. During this period, online presentations were held, followed by discussions via video conference across two campuses to provide opportunities for students to share their projects' outcomes with classmates.

Oral-aural activities

The following activities were incorporated to improve listening and speaking skills. Interaction between the language buddy was encouraged and students were required to submit a one to two minute recording of their interaction.

* project topic--classroom discussion

* record a short segment of an interaction with a language buddy

* listen to online news, or a television drama and present a summary report

* presentation practice with a language buddy

* participate in discussion conducted after the oral presentation

Course participants

Initially, six third-year students enrolled in the course, which highlights the problem of low enrolments alluded to earlier. However, two students dropped out early as the independent learning style did not suit them. Of the remaining four enrolled students, two were background speakers who had been educated in Australia, and whose parent or parents were Japanese. The other two students had studied Japanese as a foreign language in secondary school and one had also been in Japan for a year as an exchange student. It was inevitable that the speaking skills among participants would vary and would therefore become a challenging issue. All students were aged between 20 to 22 years (see Table 1).

Two students did not fully engage with the blended-learning model. Belinda did not complete some of the assessment items and lacked commitment to the course. This may have been because she already felt highly proficient in the oral-aural skills we were targeting. Cathy's portfolio included only one news article per week and no interaction with a language buddy.

The progress of Alex and Diane, who completed all assessment items required for the course, is reported in this article as a case study.

Monitoring students' progress

Three assessments, an E-portfolio, project work and an oral interview, were used to monitor students' progress.

E-portfolio for gauging learning progress (5% x 4 = 20%)

Students were asked to record their self-study and interactions with their buddy in their E-portfolios.

On four occasions, students submitted a prepared sheet where they were asked to record their perceptions and impressions of their learning experiences. Students met the language buddy on a regular basis to discuss various topics in Japanese and they uploaded a recording of a small segment of this discussion. In addition, newly studied vocabulary, expressions, or a short summary of the articles they had read were entered in the portfolio. Quizlet was used to store newly learned words and expressions. Students were encouraged to compose sentences using the new words and expressions learned in their self-study. The submitted E-portfolio was checked by the instructor and was returned with comments and corrections to their recorded expressions.

Project work: oral presentation (20%) and discussion component (5% x 4 = 20%)

During their independent study week, each student investigated a current societal issue of interest to them. They had to upload an article relevant to their topic so that other students could prepare for the discussion, as participation in the discussion was also assessed. During the oral presentation, the students presented the results of their study and led the discussion using PowerPoint. After the presentations, the students chaired the discussion by encouraging others to exchange opinions. The students then submitted a draft essay on their chosen topic, received feedback from the instructor, and the final version was submitted at the end of semester.

Oral interview with the instructor (20%)

As a final assessment, students were interviewed about the content of their own project, their learning experience and its effectiveness. Two students (Belinda and Cathy) used Blackboard Collaborate and Alex and Diane chose a face-to-face interview in the instructor's office.

The remaining 20% was dedicated to an essay, which is the outcome of the project work.

Findings

All students successfully completed the course. Belinda and Cathy passed the course with seeming minimum effort. They were already confident in their language skills and did not make much effort to improve their proficiency. Cathy commented on the course in the oral interview session that: I am not good at sticking to the original schedule I made. I realised that I prefer face-to-face classroom learning instructed by a teacher as I do not have a strong will to follow my own study plan.

Conversely, Alex and Diane commented that they had felt the full benefit of the course and demonstrated good progress.

Diane

At the start of the course, Diane was not confident in her Japanese language skills and was extremely anxious about whether she could manage all the requirements needed to pass. She was also anxious about planning the study by herself. After some consultation, she settled on the idea of self-study and found her own way. Her sincere attitude to study led her to achieve the goal she set, which was to gain new vocabulary and expressions to become confident in speaking Japanese with native speakers. Initially, her listening skills were not up to the level of other students, which probably compounded her anxiety. Diane's E-portfolio 1 (Weeks 4-5) What you learned List of expressions: (v) bakari (only doing); yooni naru (got to do) Language I watched video for 5 hours Woman (episodes 3-7). I experience went to the language exchange session for one hour. I made flash cards for Woman, episode 3, using Quizlet. How you feel I watched Woman, episode 7. Most of the time, I did about your study not need subtitles. My listening skill has improved. I learned 30 words chosen from the textbook, Intermediate Japanese. I would like to write new sentences every week using these words so that I will not forget them. I made flash cards but did not have time to use them for practice. Fun 4/5 Independently 3/5 learning Diane's E-portfolio 2 (Weeks 6-7) What you learned List of expressions: Nakanaka... nai (seldom) wakedesu (that's why) Language I watched a Japanese drama Woman (episodes 8-10). experience I discussed the Japanese defence force with two Japanese friends (2 hours). Preparation for discussion. Preparation for my own discussion. Wrote sentences using Intermediate Japanese grammar. How you feel I understand more of what my language buddy speaks. I about your study thought the discussion was hard, but I was able to follow A's presentation as he explained all the expressions beforehand. I did not understand C's presentation. Now I know we need to prepare the discussion so that other people understand the contents. I cannot learn many things at once, but basic skills are improving. Fun 4/5 Independently 4/5 learning

Study plan

As Diane's main focus was to improve her oral communication skills, in her study plan she concentrated on listening to authentic audio materials. Diane aimed to learn more general vocabulary and discussion expressions for improved fluency in conversation and to become more confident in dealing with authentic materials. She also stated that her plan was to learn how to maintain a self-study schedule for future post-university study.

Weekly schedule

Every week the content of the television drama that Diane watched was different, but she established the following study routine:

1 watch a Japanese drama and study new words and expressions, then watch it again

2 explain the story of the drama to her language buddy and discuss relevant topics

3 create flashcards for vocabulary and expressions in the articles in the discussion topic.

Diane's progress through E-portfolios

From E-portfolios 1 to 2, Diane showed some change in her perception of the course. She noticed an improvement in her listening skills and began to realise the benefit of the study as the course progressed.

Diane's progress with her language buddy

The first audio file was half in Japanese and half in English. As Diane did not understand many words her buddy used, the buddy often switched to English. In the last file, no English was used. Diane spoke more than before, although her sentences were simple and grammatical mistakes were heard. Examples of Diane's expressions Demo Nihon wa jinkoo wa amari But Japan has a takakunai (*) bigger population. Demo yokunai There are many no (*) daigakumo universities with low soremo ooi. standard. (*) ungrammatical

Diane's presentation and discussion

Diane's presentation topic was the current Japanese education system and its shortcomings. She spoke clearly and fluently using appropriate expressions. Obviously, she had prepared and practiced with fluent speakers. Compared with her proficiency at the beginning of the course, this was a noticeable and impressive improvement.

Diane's view about her study expressed at interview I made an effort to meet my Japanese buddy regularly to improve my speaking and listening skills. I met one hour every week and met another buddy so I spent three hours talking in Japanese every week. I think I can understand 60% of Japanese if we talk about unfamiliar topics but my buddy adjusts to easy Japanese level so I can comprehend. My buddy helped my Japanese by correcting my mistakes and I feel I can speak more fluently. First three weeks in class, everything was in Japanese and I was stressed because my Japanese level was not high enough. But I think I achieved my goal. I learned a lot of new and practical vocabulary from my buddy, and my listening skills have improved dramatically. I love E-portfolio and the feedback from the teacher was helpful. I think I can use my self-study skills and do another online course in future after I graduate.

Diane's comments about the course I was very lost in the first weeks of the course. First of all, during the 3 week 'initiation', everything was completely in Japanese which was difficult because it made me feel very behind my classmates and unsure of what to do. Secondly, it was difficult to make my own materials initially and I pretty much had no idea whether I was doing a good job or not as I didn't really have anything to measure it up against. Afterwards, I noticed that my speaking, writing, reading and particularly listening was improving; I noticed that I was using new words and phrases every now and then and that made the course much more exciting as I felt like I was having fun but learning [slowly but steadily] at the same time.

Alex

Alex was highly motivated with a certain career goal in mind. He enrolled in the course with the specific purpose of passing the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) Level N2 and focused on increasing the vocabulary and expressions required for this task. He fully utilised the resources and the structure of the course, and achieved his goal successfully. He was an independent learner and ready to take up the challenge of active learning. This is a typical case where the course design matched the student's need. His plan and schedule were decided swiftly and then submitted to us.

Study plan

Alex aimed to pass the JLPT Level N2 and to train all four language skills. He used the N2 preparation guide and exercise books, such as N2 Grammar Reference Book, 2,000 words for JLPT N2, and You can pass N2- Exam questions. Alex's E-portfolio 1 (Weeks 4-5) What you learned Every week, I make a list of new vocabulary and grammar using Quizlet, and study it regularly. Language I discussed about the topic of this week experience 'Defence policy of Japan' with my language buddy for 10 minutes and a part of discussion was uploaded together with E-portfolio. How you feel Some part of my study plan was not complete. So about your study I am going to catchup. Making a vocabulary list using Quizlet took a fair amount of my time was a part of the reason. I should manage my time more carefully. Plan for next I plan to complete my preparation for presentation. week I will also look for other articles on my presentation topic and summarise the gist in 200 characters. The vocabulary and grammar in the articles will be studied. All the vocabulary relevant to my presentation topic will be added in Quizlet and uploaded in my E-portfolio. I will also attach those articles and list of grammatical points I studied. Fun 5/5 Independently 4/5 learning Alex's E-portfolio 2 (Weeks 6-7) What you learned Created the list of vocabulary and grammar using Quizlet every week. I was able to remember most of them. I submitted the draft of the report 'Right of collective self-defence'. Language I talked about issues in Japanese society and experience culture with my buddy; Complete the report; Made a vocab list and studied; Made a list of new grammatical points and studied. How you feel I was able to carry out all the activities as about your study planned. When I wrote a report, I was not sure if all the grammar and expressions were correct. A bit of a worry. Fun 5/5 Independently 5/5 learning

Weekly schedule

Apart from his main focus of studying for JLPT Level 2, Alex summarised the articles he read, studied the new words and grammar in the articles and had discussions with his language buddy.

Alex's progress through E-portfolio

Alex's portfolio was simple and did not differ much from week to week. He completed his weekly schedule at a steady pace and was satisfied with his progress.

Alex's progress with his language buddy

Alex discussed political issues with his buddy. His buddy spoke at a normal speed and used many complex words as she assumed Alex understood everything she said. Alex followed the topic well and responded between the buddy's fast talk, but his expressions were simpler and more casual than his native speaker friend. In the fourth (last) audio file his hesitation time became shorter, and more advanced vocabulary and completed sentences were heard. Some of the expressions he used were not appropriate for the formality of the topic. However, opportunities to talk about difficult topics with friends in Japanese would probably not be found without the language buddy task in the course work. Examples of Alex's expressions Sono Choosa de, shirabete, So, by the moshi sono investigation, Nihonno kuugun investigate, and ya kaigun ga if the Japanese osokattarishitari, navy or air force gutto were late to act dekirumitaina

Alex's presentation and discussion

Alex's topic, Japanese defence policy, was a very difficult topic to discuss. He prepared very well and explained his topic so that all his classmates could understand. His PowerPoint presentation was thorough and easy to follow, and he chaired the discussion session efficiently.

Alex's view about his study expressed at interview This is my first online language course. I have experience of writing blogs and putting my own opinion in Wiki in another linguistic course. Probably the most trouble I had in the course was using multiple resources and putting into one using Quizlet to work for me. I like studying in this way but when it comes to discussing a certain topic with other students, they need to prepare and participate actively to make discussion worthwhile and valuable. After the course, I will continue using Quizlet in my future study and work.

Alex's comments about the course I particularly enjoyed creating my own materials especially for my study goals. I've always studied Japanese from a text book and with a teacher, never really getting much into the practical side of things, so this course really helped me to be motivated and to think outside the box in how one can study a language. I enjoyed creating my own goal and trying to reach that goal through different means. I'm not sure I completely reached my goal (but that may be attributed to the confused floundering of the first few weeks of the task).

Discussion

The implementation of the course provided us with valuable insights into the design and delivery of a blended-learning language course through a preliminary examination of students' work. Perhaps not unexpectedly, the students who demonstrated a readiness for autonomous learning were those who benefited most from this approach. It is noteworthy that the student who was least confident in her language skills at the outset saw some positive development through this blended-learning approach.

Chun, Kern, and Smith (2016) provide comprehensive details of how to effectively evaluate learning in online environments and point out that we need to look (at a minimum) at the tool's affordances; the experiences and expectations of our particular students; and the language learning environment itself, both inside and outside the classroom. Only then does it make sense to explore how learners engage with a tool and determine the extent to which this engagement has helped them reach their teacher's or their own language learning goals (pp. 74-75).

The mixture of affordances, particularly in the realms of temporality (Smith, Alvarez-Torres, & Zhao, 2003), offered by both synchronous and asynchronous technologies in our blended-learning approach arguably provided Diane with the appropriate language learning environment to realise her expectations.

Issues to be resolved

In any language course, students' proficiency levels vary and it is challenging to develop suitable materials and assessment tasks to meet their individual needs. This is particularly the case for advanced learners due to their varying capabilities and learning experiences. Further, unlike reading and writing exercises, speaking and listening skills are clearly noticeable at the time of on-going communication. Even though the course addresses study at an individual student's pace, class activities such as discussions and presentations can increase anxieties and make some students feel intimidated when they are less fluent than average (Horwitz, 2016).

Another issue in the design of self-directed learning is scaffolding learners to be able to select appropriate material online to incorporate into their studies. Despite the fact that students are using the internet from a very young age, or, perhaps because of this familiarity, they could not easily discern the type of resources required for university language learning. It appears that they were not confident in skimming through websites to find appropriate resources because of the large amount of information available in their second language. This relates to David Buckingham's (2003) notion that while '[media] literacy certainly includes the ability to use and interpret media... it also involves a much broader analytical understanding' (p. 38) which needs to be developed.

This study is a first, small step to looking at the issue of oral-aural teaching and learning in blended-learning environments. Clearly, a larger cohort of students viewed over a longer time-frame would be required to investigate this issue more deeply.

Summary

Although there is some resistance or hesistation based on logistical constraints among language teachers towards online teaching and learning (Howard, 2013; Gillespie & Barr, 2002), it is inevitable that we move forward and find the best practice to accommodate the needs of both teachers and learners in this interconnected world (Tsurutani & Imura, 2015). Needless to say, the deep-learning approach requires an appropriate framework designed by teachers and students who are highly motivated to plan, monitor and evaluate their own learning goals. The concept of deep learning worked well in encouraging students' self-study to improve their oral proficiency, and in helping them to become independent learners. In a digital society, where learning can take place in a non-linear way, the need for a carefully designed blended-learning environment is paramount. We believe the findings of this pilot study will contribute to the further development of advanced language courses.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by Griffith Grants and Fellowship for Learning and Teaching and the Queensland Program for Japanese Education.

Dr Chiharu Tsurutani is a senior lecturer in Japanese language and linguistics at Griffith University. Her research interests are second-language phonetics and phonology, their application to computer programs for pronunciation training and assessment. She has been leading projects on the development of online assignments and courses for the Japanese language team.

Dr Taeko Imura is a lecturer in Japanese at Griffith University. She received her doctorate in Applied Linguistics and postgraduate diploma in computers, technology and language learning from the University of Queensland. She has over 25 years' experience in teaching Japanese at primary, secondary and tertiary levels in Australia.

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Tsurutani, C. & Imura, T. 2015. Designing online assignments for Japanese language teaching. JALT CALL, 11, 3, 255-270. Appendix 1: Online exercises for learning Japanese available in 2015 Listening Speaking Japanese Listening Practice JASensei An app for android devices that has An all-in-one Japanese learning simple audio Japanese lessons and app. Contains vocabulary and quizzes. For more advanced learners, phrasebook sections that let this app provides video and audio you record your own voice for links from other sources on a comparison. It can also record daily basis including sources your voice and gives you positive such as new reports. or negative feedback depending on your pronunciation. Also includes quizzes with verbal answer options and options to create your own study lists. JapanesePod101 AccelaStudy Japanese An all-in-one Japanese learning A large vocabulary list of 2100 website, with a focus on audio words arranged in topic lessons. The audio lessons are categories. Customisable flash for beginner to advanced, and cards and quizzes. Audio is given cover a wide range of topics. in both English and Japanese. There are also many dialogue Hands-free learning option. examples and diary-type entries that are used in the lessons, which are good for listening practice and can also be used by students for speaking practice. Nihongo Den This is a Youtube channel that has simply combined the Japanese Language Proficiency Test listening comprehension audio samples with the written exam, creating videos that are very useful for studying for any JLPT level. Table 1 Students' background Length of Japanese Student name Japanese study learning (pseudonym) Gender (years) experience Alex M 4 Since secondary school Diane F 5.5 At university; never been to Japan Belinda F 8 Prior learning at school and university Cathy F 12 Since primary school including 1 year exchange program Student name Family (pseudonym) background Alex Japanese parent Diane Belinda Japanese parents; high oral communication skills Cathy