Learning models in professional experience for language teacher education students.

Moloney, Robyn ; Cavanagh, Michael ; Xia, Frank 等

Background

The current diverse cohorts of language teacher education students are the future of our profession. In the university in which this study took place, with a typical annual cohort of around 20, students are diverse in age, in cultural and linguistic background (Moloney & Giles, 2015) and in their critical abilities (Moloney & Oguro, 2016). The nature of professional experience encountered in schools is a critical personal experience for them, and ideally provides a model of the professional learning communities they will engage with as teachers.

Professional experience is regarded as a 'site of learning' (Le Cornu, 2015, p. 3), of untapped potential for the development of both the teacher education student and his/her supervising teacher (Grudnoff, Haigh, & Mackisack, 2017) and, more broadly, for teacher professional learning across what is now recognised to be a whole-school responsibility (Hagger & Mcintyre, 2006). Recent reports (e.g., NSW Government, 2013; Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG). 2014) have recommended a variety of new models and practices, w ith an emphasis on partnerships between schools and universities to strengthen the links between theory and practice (Allen, Howells, & Radford, 2013; Stenberg, Rajala & Hilppo, 2016). This development has been framed by the AITSL Professional Standards (2011) which are driving this process at both state and national levels. The Professional Experience Framework (NESA, 2017) describes new roles and responsibilities for teacher education students, supervisors in schools, and their university support teams, and emphasises the importance of collaboration and whole-school responsibility in professional experience.

This article has three sections.

* First, it briefly examines the significant challenges faced by one student of language teacher education in professional experience in an isolated supervision context.

* Second, it describes two professional experience projects carried out by Macquarie University (the initial one was a pilot undertaken in 2016 using instructional rounds, which found there were benefits from enhanced collaboration between students, supervising teachers and university; the other, in progress at time of writing, is positioned within a whole-school focus on a professional learning community, and includes the experience of peer coaching).

* Third, this article suggests that a peer-coaching approach has much in common with intercultural enquiry pedagogy, and thus has particular potential in language teacher education, to broaden experience, skills and outlook.

The article was written in collaboration with a student of language teacher education, Frank, whose experiences form the basis of the case study in this paper. The article does not generalise from his experience, however. The authors recognise that many different models of professional experience exist across universities, and that many universities are finding solutions to the issues identified in this study. Some material from this article was first presented at the Modern Language Teachers Association of New South Wales (MLTANSW) conference in March 2017.

Part 1: Professional experience - a complex task

Teacher education students may come to their first professional experience with limited knowledge of the diversity of school environments (Merryfield, 2000). A constructivist understanding of learning (Vygotsky, 1986) indicates that the knowledge they gain at university is interpreted in relation to prior know ledge. Similarly, their knowledge and goals within their first professional experience must be constructed, and progressively built, in relation to this prior know ledge. All teacher education students need ample opportunity to make observations and time for guided critical reflection on their own assumptions (Alger, 2006; Ward & McCotter, 2004). As illustrative foreground to describing changes Macquarie University made in their professional development program, we consider one student's experience.

Frank is, at the time of writing, in his fourth (final) year of a combined Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Education degree. He emigrated from China with his parents at the age of four, spoke no English, and settled in an inner-west suburb of Sydney. Frank has completed a major in both Japanese and German in his degree. He will complete a total of three semester units of languages methodology, and 80 days of professional experience, completed partly in block periods and partly integrated within semester teaching time. The methodology units cover knowledge of the syllabuses, lesson planning, use of resources, and behaviour management. In March 2017, Robyn, a teacher education academic at Macquarie University, was preparing to speak about language professional experience at the MLTA NSW conference. As in previous years, she invited her students to attend, and optionally, to contribute a narrative of their professional experience up to that point. Frank volunteered to participate in Robyn's presentation and offered the following narrative. He refers to his (first) short professional development placement, undertaken early in 2016, in his third year. At that time, he was completing the first of his units on languages methodology. After the conference, we (Robyn and Michael) invited Frank to reflect further on his narrative, in light of our recent work with professional coaching and changes we have made in professional development in 2016 and 2017 (detailed later in this article). Frank's narrative is offered as a profile of one student's needs and experience. As it was not solicited under research conditions, but as a contribution to the community, Frank was invited to be a contributing author to this paper, not a research 'subject'. He participated in the further analysis of his narrative. We stress that this one narrative is not meant to be generalised, and is offered only as a single case.

Frank's narrative

Frank's narrative begins with a reflection on his expectations, which have been constructed from his own school and university education: Neither my personal experience of schooling, nor my university learning, prepared me for my first professional experience in Sydney's south-west suburbs. I had lived in a relatively well off 'bubble; as my supervising teacher and I came to call it in our reflections upon my professional experience: I attended an opportunity class in Years 5-6, then a selective high school in Sydney... University courses did little to burst the bubble in which I still found myself... I studied introductory psychology and how the brain of a learner functioned. I learned about the psychological and theoretical justifications behind Skinner's behaviourism when used as a classroom management tool. 'Practical' examples of such theories were limited to the 'typical' misbehaving child exhibiting a 'typical' pattern of (mis)behaviour, which would magically correct itself after an application of a certain classroom management strategy This did little to challenge views which I had formed subconsciously through my own schooling, of what being a teacher would actually be like.

In a school in Sydney's south-west, Frank's supervising teacher was the only languages teacher on staff, on casual contract. The school's language program consisted of 100 mandatory hours of language (a New South Wales requirement), in this case German, in Year 8. The difficulty in forming elective classes beyond the mandatory hours has been noted in a number of studies of secondary school language learning in Australia (Clayton, 2017; Cruickshank & Wright, 2016; Cruickshank, 2017; LoBianco & Slaughter, 2009). Cruickshank (2017) has noted that in such situations, the supervising teacher frequently feels isolated, and without informed professional leadership. At the time of writing, this supervising teacher had left the school and could not be contacted to also contribute to the article. Frank recollected in his narrative that his supervising teacher had used mentoring skills in conducting extended 'reflections' to help him examine his own perceptions and discover for himself how to 'be a teacher' in this particular environment. Frank identifies the gap between expectations shaped in his educational background, and the reality of this school environment. We perceive that he was shocked and confused, and that his emotional reaction to first experiences shaped negative perceptions of learning in the school. In his perception, he feels deceived about what he was 'taught to believe'. These preconceptions, of course, lay very far from teaching in a low socioeconomic area... The behaviours exhibited by the students, the teaching styles used by the teachers, and the general classroom and school climate were nothing that I could have imagined, in the same way that Julius Caesar could not possibly have imagined what the internet would turn out to be. In my very first lesson of observation, I bore witness to gendered, racially charged insults between students, as well as a case of sexual misconduct in the classroom, through which I learned, (before I learned all the students' names) the school's policy for reporting and handling sexual misbehaviour... Schools were not always the positive learning environments that I had been taught to believe.

With his supervisor, through examining feedback on his lessons, Frank began to critically examine his perceptions and he appreciated the feedback and the scaffolding suggestions given. He indicated that he understood that the supervising teacher was acting as mentor in a zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1986) to support his learning in this context: The questions I was asked were straight to the point; 'What went wrong in the lesson? Why do you think it went wrong?; and I remember snippets of his direct and practical feedback, such as: 'Your lesson is too hard, the students didn't understand, the students need very specific instruction; your lesson was good because everyone learned the word for "bread"; I always scaffold with pictures, not words, because many of our students read way below grade level.' By giving me precise, contextually relevant feedback about my performance, I was able to adapt my teaching style and content to better suit the unique demands of teaching at my first professional experience.

The supervising teacher was a catalyst in facilitating a self-learning process. While Frank expected to construct connections between his theoretical learning and the school context, instead he was engaged in the immediacy of adapting to the needs of the students. This, at the early stage of his development, was learning 'how to be a teacher'. In this unfamiliar environment, I came to see my supervising teacher as much more than just a supervisor, giver of feedback and corrector of my mistakes. He became a mentor, and I relied on him to effectively re-teach me everything that there was to know about schools, which was knowledge that I had failed to acquire while in my bubble. I had anticipated, before starting my prac that I would be able to apply my theoretical knowledge and learn how to teach in a practical classroom environment. Instead, I learned how to be a teacher

Crasborn, Hennissen, Brouwer, Korthagen, and Bergen (2008) distinguish two key roles for supervising teachers. The first is the role of 'advisor and instructor', offering technical advice, opinions and information. The second is that of 'encourager of reflection', providing direction and allowing the teacher education student to learn from their own classroom practice. Through the critical thinking and in-school learning that he had to do in this context, Frank believes he was changed personally, and his ideas challenged, through the positive modelling and reflection facilitated by his supervising teacher. He was pushed to a significant transformation of perspective, in new knowledge and skills. We offer this illustration to reinforce the need for changes in practice that are taking place in professional experience.

There is clearly a need for Frank's university methodology class to take responsibility for reflective interrogation of teacher education students' values and expectations. We question how the skills of the broader school learning community may have further enabled both Frank and his supervising teacher to focus not only on survival behaviour management but on developing deeper capacities in the whole staff to foster a broader engagement with school students, and perhaps together, address the problematic learning environment in the school. Both learning to teach and processes of supervising and mentoring are complex, cognitive, emotional and interpersonal professional learning tasks. As such, they need to be grounded in partnership, collaboration and a sense of belonging to a school community (Jones et al., 2016).

New models for professional development

There have been some recent initiatives in the organisation of professional experience placement that are providing new perspectives on mentoring and collaboration (Lang, Neal, Karvouni, & Chandler, 2015; Moran, 2014). These changes call for construction of shared meaning through collaboration, reflection, dialogue and observation, to support learning (Abdulwahed, Jaworski, & Crawford, 2012; Department of Education and Training, 2015; Elliott, 2004).

Professional experience needs to be constructed as a partnership between universities and schools, and as a whole-school responsibility, not just as the work of individual supervising teachers (Moran, Abbott, & Clarke, 2009). Under such a partnership, we suggest that learning can take place in reciprocal relationships among collaborative groups of teacher education students, university lecturers, professional experience coordinators, supervising teachers, and other faculty members (Rogers & Keil, 2007) In a professional experience learning community (Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008), students work not only to develop their personal understanding of teaching, but to recognise how they can support the learning of their peers. Collaborative learning could, for example, occur through activities such as co-teaching, peer observation and feedback, shared reflection and coaching-style discussion.

Supervising teachers and teacher education students are familiar with the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2011), and the values and practices they promote. Whether teachers are maintaining their professional learning, or working toward accreditation at proficient or highly accomplished teacher levels, the Standards indicate that teachers need to develop the ability to collaborate across many aspects of their work: for example, the emphasis on 'Work with colleagues to plan, evaluate and modify learning and teaching programs...'. 'In particular, teachers are required to recognise expertise in supervision: 6.1 ... plan personal professional development goals, support colleagues to identify and achieve personal development goals and pre-service teachers to improve classroom practice. 6.2 Plan for professional/earning by accessing and critiquing relevant research, engage in high quality targeted opportunities to improve practice and offer quality placements for pre-service teachers where applicable (A/TSL, 2077)

Partnerships between universities and practising teachers are now mandated by New South Wales Education Standards Authority (NESA) and AITSL, and are crucial (lngvarson, Reid, Buckley, Kleinhenz, Masters, & Rowley, 2014). These collaborations ensure that professional experience begins early in the teacher education program and that the professional experience program provides a range of carefully planned experiences that help teacher education students connect their university coursework to classroom practice (DarlingHammond, 2006) and 'know when, how, and whether they are having a sufficient impact on all the students in their classes' (Mclean Davies et al., 2013, p. 104).

In high-quality professional experience partnerships, the Standards are used to guide teacher education students' professional development. Supervising teachers not only model good practice but also make their instructional thinking visible to the teacher education student (City, Elmore, Fiarman, & Teitel, 2009). Teacher education students progressively take on greater responsibility for all aspects of classroom teaching and have structured opportunities to become reflexive practitioners incorporated into their professional experience (Darling-Hammond & BaratzSnowden, 2005).

Among the practices trialled in professional experience, instructional rounds (IR) (City, Elmore, Fiarman, & Teitel, 2009) has become common. Instructional rounds is an inquiry process of observation and descriptive and reflective discussion designed to improve practice. Based on the hospital model of training intern doctors, a typical 'round' involves small groups of educators visiting one or a handful of classrooms and making observations for a set duration on a specific aspect of teaching. Observers then debrief using descriptive evidence rather than judgements, with the observed supervising teacher's participation optional. Themes are identified with the aim of improving individual pedagogical practices among those present and/or identifying broader themes for school-wide improvement (Goodwin et al., 2015). Importantly, IR may be used to support the development of collaborative communities. In this model, teacher education students not only develop their personal understanding of teaching, but they see both their peers and the supervising teachers actively learning and developing ideas. A body of research has noted the benefits experienced by participants in IR. These include a belief that important skills and attributes are gained, that theory and practice are integrated, and that collaborative skills, dialogue, observation and reflection are developed and practiced (Lang et al., 2015; Reagan, Chen, Roegman, & Zuckerman, 2015; Roegman & Riehl, 2015).

Part 2: Two projects in innovative professional experience models

Project 1

Macquarie University conducted a small study of IR in professional experience in late 2016. This project took place in a four-week block period in a K-12 co-educational school, with six teacher education students and six supervising teachers, in mixed groups, participating in IR. Benefits and challenges for teacher education students were identified, in relationships with peers and school staff, in differentiation skills, and in perceiving connections between theory and practice. Ana lysis of interview data revealed that the strengths of this model were in :

* the development of a sense of community, confidence and increasing professional interactions

* increased professional interactions between teacher education students and a diverse group of teachers

* developing classroom skills

* on-going cyclical skills of continual improvement.

Project 2

In the second project, in progress in 2017, the notion of IR became one element in a larger scenario. A group of 14 Macquarie University teacher education students has been accepted for placement across various subject areas (including languages) with 14 teachers and 6 visiting university staff, in one public secondary school. A group of staff members at the school has, independently, collaboratively designed a whole-school professional learning project, which includes working with teacher education students. The school is progressively involving its entire staff, and some university lecturers, in professional learning around processes of peer coaching (see Acknowledgment at end of article).

Mentoring and peer coaching

Participants come to understand a distinction between mentoring and peer coaching. Mentoring focuses on sharing expertise, and, in the case of teacher education students, may include giving advice and modelling quality practice. Mentoring 'is a sustained, dynamic relationship that allows effective practitioners to share their professional and personal expertise and experiences' (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2006). The aim of mentoring is to accelerate the learning process for colleagues while not depriving them of their independence or responsibility. Mentoring should be a two-way conversation, where, for example, the supervising teacher may ask the teacher education student for feedback on their learning, and how they see their practice changing. The mentoring exchange may include the teacher education student offering ideas and expertise on new technologies, best apps, latest additional language slang, media and pop culture; and contributing skills to performances, film-making and so on.

Peer coaching involves a 'being-with' model. The coach does not give advice, but instead uses a series of questions to elicit new perceptions and planning in the person being coached. While useful for teacher professional learning, many elements of the coaching model are also suitable for teacher education student professional learning.

Coaching has been defined as: a one-to-one conversation focussed on the enhancement of learning and development through increasing self-awareness and a sense of personal responsibility, where the coach facilitates the self-directed learning of the coachee through questioning, active listening, and appropriate challenge in a supportive and encouraging climate. (van Nieuwerburgh 2012, p.17)

The skills of coaching include developing trust, listening actively, asking the best questions and giving careful feedback, and guiding the teacher education student to articulate learning goals and to identify strategies for achieving these goals.

Mentoring and coaching are continued at university, where essential reflection and analysis after a period of professional experience is continued in methodology workshops. In the Macquarie University model, students commonly continue with the professional experience one or two days per week, following a block period, while simultaneously continuing to work on reflection in pedagogy workshops. Teacher education students take their external experiences and reinterpret them, transform their perspectives and challenge their assumptions about schooling and society (Moloney & Oguro, 2016; Trotman & Kerr, 2001). Project 2 is still in progress at the time of writing and only informal anecdotal feedback is available. An analysis of the project will be published in 2018.

Part 3: Coaching and intercultural learning

Language teachers will have some familiarity with the coaching style of question-asking. It mirrors the type of open-inquiry questions we have come to use in intercultural enquiry within language learning. This has placed the emphasis, for example, not on delivery of information, but on teasing out learners' own discoveries and critical perceptions (Harbon & Moloney, 2013; Morgan, 2008, 2010). The fundamental principle of respect is that, in the case of both the classroom language learner and the teacher education student, transformed perceptions and reconceptualisations are individually negotiated, and build upon individual prior knowledge, as they were in Frank's case.

It is particularly relevant for students preparing for careers as language teachers to critically reflect on their own intercultural experiences (Moloney & Oguro, 2014) as an essential part of their personal teaching toolkit (Gibb, 2013), and to bring this understanding to their professional experience and professional identity (Braun, 2013; Bates, 2017). In critically ana lysing both their individual backgrounds and their perceptions of professional experience, they can bring coherence to experience, and can move between observation and inference (Dewey, 1933). Hickson (2011, p.831) has underlined the relationship between critical reflection and future practice: 'To engage in critical reflection, we need to both understand our experiences in the social context and also to understand how we can use this knowledge to develop our practice in the future'.

Two initiatives have developed from the training in peer coaching undertaken by languages education lecturers at Macquarie University. First, new training has been put into practice in observing others' workshops and providing carefully structured feedback using the peer-coaching guidelines. Second, in the languages methodology workshops, students have recently been given instruction in the peer-coaching technique, and noted its connection to intercultural enquiry questions. The students then put the technique into practice in devising a coaching feedback conversation following student teaching demonstrations in class. Although not a research situation, informal feedback indicated that students felt that this process provided access to new skills and learning.

New resources are continually highlighted to support quality supervision in professional experience, such as those available from AITSL on classroom practice, coaching and mentoring and supervision of teacher education students. See the AITSL website for more information (https://aitsl.edu.au).

Macquarie University has also developed a series of courses in blended online and face-to-face modes that focus on teacher learning for professional experience supervision and induction. The courses are designed for proficient and highly accomplished teacher (HAT) levels, with participants able to gain accreditation hours for time spent completing the learning activities. The first of these courses will be available to all teachers late in 2017.

Acknowledgement

Robyn Moloney and Michael Cavanagh attended a short training course conducted by Growth Coaching International and refer to its resources at http://www.growthcoaching.com.au/ourprograms/peer-coaching

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Dr Robyn Moloney is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Studies in the Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie University. She teaches Methodology units in in Languages and EALD. She supervises doctoral projects focused on issues of language and culture.

Dr Michael Cavanagh is the Director of the Secondary Initial Teacher Education Program in the Department of Educational Studies at Macquarie University. His research focuses on the development of models for professional experience and how pre-service teachers develop their reflective practice.

Frank Xia is a teacher education student at Macquarie University, and will graduate and commence his career in 2018 as a secondary teacher of German and Japanese.

Please Note: Illustration(s) are not available due to copyright restrictions.