'In bare feet with my journal': promoting the intercultural development of young exchange students.

Moloney, Robyn ; Genua-Petrovic, Rosalba

Abstract

It is increasingly common for schools to form partnerships with schools in the countries of languages learned in the classroom. While there has been substantial investigation of language and culture learning in the context of tertiary study abroad, there has been limited research attention to pedagogical interventions which may support learning in young exchange travellers. This study applied the principles of intercultural language learning to the exchange context. The article reports the impact of a three-phase intervention which was designed to extend student intercultural learning, before, during and after two exchange trips to China and Europe. Students' responses to the intervention are assessed through the analysis of students' journals and blog data, using criteria developed from a three-tiered model of descriptive, dialogic, and critical writing. The study shows that the intervention facilitated student observation skills in both groups, but had more limited success in the development of self-reflection in relation to the exchange environment. The study offers strategies for effective design of such teaching interventions, as an important contribution to languages education.

Key Words

exchange, study abroad, intercultural, language, culture, secondary education, ethnography

Background to the study

Over the past ten years, languages teaching in Australian schools has utilised an intercultural approach to pedagogy, to development of resources, and to professional learning programs (see, for example, Byram, 1989; Kramsch, 1993; Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino & Kohler, 2003). Teachers have been encouraged to embed explicit strategies into their classroom pedagogy to elicit critical reflection on the similarities and differences between languages and cultures (Morgan, 2007; Moloney, 2010).

The application of intercultural principles to learning experiences outside the classroom, however, as for example to short-term school exchange or study abroad programs, has been limited. As Australia is predominantly English-speaking and geographically situated at long distances from target language countries, it is common for schools to form partnerships with counterpart schools learning English in the target language country, and to annually arrange reciprocal visits. Both the hosting and the visiting roles are used by teachers to motivate and support student learning experience in interaction with their target language peers. There is substantial literature on the tertiary study abroad context (see for example, Brecht & Robinson, 1995; De Keyser, 1991; Kinginger, 2004, 2008; Olmedo & Harbon, 2010), and on teacher experience of overseas experience (French & Harbon, 2010; Harbon, 2007). There has been limited focus on school students, however, and, in particular, little research to evaluate connections between pedagogical approach and learning outcomes of school students participating in school exchange trips.

Unlike the independent, unsupervised long-term duration of tertiary study abroad, school exchange trips are usually short (from 2-6 weeks), and student groups are accompanied by one or more supervising school teachers, due to issues of risk and the greater need for emotional support. Although there may be other focuses of school trips, this study limits its attention to those taken for the purpose of language and culture learning.

There is evidence that, in exchange programs for young learners, students may develop negative stereotypes of the target culture if they lack prior knowledge and skills for interpreting intercultural interactions (Buttjes & Byram, 1991). Research on tertiary students' experiences abroad has similarly found that students may not, without assistance, acquire the skills to successfully negotiate cultural issues and incidents (Bagnall, 2005). Teachers thus need to explicitly assist learners to develop skills in observing, analysing, and integrating experiences.

This article reports on the impact of a three-phase pedagogical intervention designed to extend student learning which took place before, during, and after a short term school exchange trip. The intervention is implemented over two different trips, with refinement of technique in the second iteration.

The aim of this study was to examine what effect, if any, can be observed from an intervention that involved intercultural teaching, prior to, during, and after an exchange experience. This article argues that an explicit process of scaffolding, journaling, and peer-constructed re-acculturation supports various levels of intercultural learning in secondary school students.

Literature review

The theoretical framing of this study combines two interrelated areas of research literature, that of study abroad programs and a sociocultural theoretical approach to culture learning, which underlies intercultural language learning and development. This review introduces both fields.

The interests and approaches of study abroad research

Over the past 40 years research interest in student learning in tertiary study abroad programs has been diverse in both aims and methodologies. Studies focussed on language acquisition achieved during study abroad have featured attention to elements of syntax and vocabulary growth, employing quantitative methodologies focussed on test scores (see for example Carroll, 1967; Rivers, 1998).

Studies taking broader social perspectives on second language acquisition have suggested that what students gain is the ability to 'sound good' by adopting particular oral conversational strategies, and by learning appropriate pragmatic strategies (Taguchi, 2011). There has also been attention to issues in re-acculturation to the home culture (Adler, 1981; Storti, 2001).

Study abroad research which has been designed to access deeper sociocultural understanding of students' learning about culture has employed qualitative methodologies, utilising introspective narrative techniques (diaries, interviews, blogs) as well as case studies and ethnographies (Brecht & Robinson, 1995; Polyani, 1995). DeKeyser (1991, pp.117-118) has recommended that research on language learning abroad 'should be longitudinal, that is, follow the learners closely throughout the overseas experience, and integrate test data with more ethnographic data'.

Researchers have sought to identify the components of the intercultural knowledge and competence achieved during study abroad or exchange (for a useful summary, see Paige, Jorstad, Siaya, Klein & Colby, 1993). Paige et al. (1993) claim that students explore their own culture, discover the relationship between language and culture, and acquire techniques of analysis and comparison of cultures. Zhu (2011) asserts that the key ability is identifying and challenging one's cultural assumptions and developing empathy. These various abilities may be demonstrated in identified levels of critical cultural reflection apparent in journal writing. The analysis of student writing may be judged using the descriptors of a three-tiered model, developed by Harris, Smith, Merrit, Simons and Reid (2002), and amended in a related study abroad context by Bagnall (2005). Bagnall has described the progressive level of intercultural reflective ability identifiable in the journal writing of tertiary students doing practicum teaching in different cultural contexts. The analysis of textual data in this study will use as rating criteria, Bagnall's (2005) identification of three levels in student writing as: culturally descriptive reflection: writing which simply describes cultural practices, gives information, may include simplistic comparisons

* culturally dialogic reflection: writing which shows that the writer is in a thoughtful, interrogative conversation with themselves and the practices of their home culture

* culturally critical reflection: writing which shows an independent synthesis and interpretation of cultural information, and uses it to question the writer's relationships, perspectives and behaviour.

These notions shape the conceptualisation of intercultural learning that this study employs to inform its analysis of data.

The acquisition of intercultural competence will not just occur inevitably and simply as the result of passive exposure to cultural input (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999). Some form of preparation intervention is desirable for learners before in-country experiences, in order to develop skills in the interpretation of culturally bound interactions with native speakers. If students are adequately prepared for the cultural input they receive during such visits, supported during the trip, and given opportunity for post-trip reflective processing, they may maximise their learning (Paige, Cohen, Kappler, Chi & Lassegard, 2002).

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Application of theoretical frame

The movement towards a sociocultural understanding of the exchange experience parallels similar movement in language pedagogy. In her design of the intervention, the teacher is making an application of her intercultural language pedagogy. This pedagogy is viewed as an 'orientation' (Scarino, Liddicoat, Carr, Crichton, Crozet, Dellit, Kohler, Loechel, Mercurio, Morgan, Papademetre & Scrimgeour, 2009) in both teacher and learners, towards new understandings of 'other and self' as a result of reflective examination of their learning. Byram (1989) and Kramsch (1993) describe a process of the individual developing interculturally through de-centring from their own first culture. The design of this study's intervention focuses on the posing of enquiry questions to elicit critical observation skills. Studies have shown that intercultural language learning is facilitated by explicit critical questions by both teachers and students (Morgan, 2007; Moloney, 2010). In its use of pre- and post-trip meetings, the study also is informed by the notion that the construction of learning takes place in social interaction with peers (Vygotsky, 1986). The analysis of data is informed also by two models of progressive intercultural development (Bennett, 1993; Bagnall, 2005) as detailed below in the Methodology section.

Methodology

This study provides an illuminative case study within one school context, of the design and implementation of a pedagogical intervention, with two iterations, in school groups travelling in 2010 to China (September) and Europe (December) respectively. The intervention is described below. The research, which followed the teaching and learning activity, uses qualitative data from student journals and blogs, and post-trip written evaluation.

Data sources and analysis

The intervention, as described below, consisted of a site-based, three phase strategy to provide pre-trip scaffolding of intercultural enquiry, during-trip journaling activity, and post-trip re-acculturation discussion and written evaluation.

This study analyses qualitative data, using written narratives and stories extracted from student journals and blogs completed while on exchange, and data from both verbal and written responses in post-trip meetings.

Content analysis, to determine evidence of student intercultural learning was carried out on the written narrative texts entered by each student in a journal or blog. The analysis was concerned only with evidence of intercultural learning, as it has been shaped by theoretical notions in the relevant literature above.

The analysis of data is informed by two models. The six stage Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Bennett, 1993) provides a linear description of personal intercultural change which moves through three ethnocentric phases, Denial, Defence, Minimisation; and three stages of ethnorelativity, Acceptance, Adaptation and Integration. As detailed above, the analysis of student writing is informed by a three level model of progressive intercultural change (Bagnall, 2005). The two researchers jointly read a sample of the texts and developed rating criteria for reliably judging the three levels of writing. Pseudonyms have been used in extracts from the data.

Participants and the school site

The China student exchange group comprised 13 students, seven boys and six girls, fromYears 8-10 (aged 13-16). As non-native speakers of Chinese, students begin their study of Chinese in Year 7, thus years of study varied from two to four years. Their curriculum includes aspects of cultural knowledge which occur in the context of early learning, for example, family, school, friends and festivals. It was the first trip to China for all students. The students spent two weeks at a secondary public school in Guangzhou, accommodated individually in family homes.

The Europe group comprised seventeen students, 13 girls and four boys, in Years 10-11 (aged 16-17). Years of study of the relevant language (French, German or Italian) varied from four to 10 years, as some students had studied their language continuously from preschool while others had begun in Year 7 The 17 students spent six weeks in individual family homestays and attended the sister school relevant to their language of study, seven in Montpellier (France), four in Bad Salzuflen (Germany) and six in Rovereto (Italy), respectively.

The school is a co-educational independent school in Sydney, Australia, incorporating pre-school, primary and secondary levels, with an ethos of diversity and bilingualism (Moloney, 2004). The school offers a choice of four non-English languages through the preschool and primary years, with additional languages in secondary school. The school has been teaching Chinese from Year 7 since 2007. The school has conducted its annual six-week European student exchange program since 1995 with sister schools in Italy, France and Germany. It now also includes annual or bi-annual two-week exchanges to Japan, New Caledonia, Spain and China.

Description of the teaching and learning intervention

The teaching intervention was designed to address four goals: (a) to enable development of critical observation skills, (b) to support retention of learning for ongoing processing of learning over time, (c) to stimulate deeper intercultural self-reflection, beyond 'compare and contrast', and (d) to provide a forum, after the trip, to give students the opportunity to process and construct their learning together, to support re-acculturation.

To achieve these goals, the intervention was designed in three stages, common to both groups. The intervention was modelled on selected strategies in Paige et al. (2002), amended for the Australian school context.

Stage 1: Pre-trip

Pre-trip teaching was conducted in four meetings, with discussion of general travel strategies. This included how to be a keen critical observer of the culture and lifestyle, not only noticing differences, but also how the differences made students feel about themselves. The teacher gave students a journal, access to a personal blog, and a set of questions. The questions asked students to observe and comment on issues of food, clothes, host's home, social relationships and school. For example: Clothes. Are Chinese students' clothes different from what you wear? Why do you think this might be? How is teenage life in Australia similar to China? How is it different? At school: What is the same as your school? What is different? What do you notice about interaction between teachers and students in China? How is it different in Australia? At home: Who is doing the cooking and cleaning in your Chinese host family? Is this different from your family? Do families seem to spend more time together in Australia or in China?

Between the return of the China group (September 2010) and the departure of the Europe group (December 2010), the questions were refined. Questions were modelled on examples from the Intercultural Language and Teaching Learning Program (Morgan, 2007). Further questions were added for the European group, due both to perceived limitations of the responses made by China participants, and to interests and concerns of the older age group. Questions were expanded to include more emphasis on perceptions of feelings, making friends, reflection on own personality and identity, and reflection on home culture and family. For example, relating to Italy/France/ Germany: Do you think it is easier to make friends in Italy (or other country) or Australia? Why? Do you think you are more comfortable, more suited to the way social relationships run, in Australia or in Italy? Do you find yourself behaving differently in a family setting in Italy from when in Austraha? What are you noticing about the people, the culture and ways of communication while you are in Italy? After being in Italy, has it changed the way you think about yourself? After being in Italy have you learnt something about yourself and your culture?

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In addition, as a language task, the teacher lent every student a small digital audio recorder, with a list of simple questions in the target language. Students had to interview a number of people in their new environment (e.g. host family, local peers), and bring home the recorded material. This material was not part of the research data.

Stage 2: During the trip

On the teacher-accompanied China trip, there was daily teacher supervision of writing. In the unaccompanied Europe exchange there was no teacher supervision of journal or blog writing. Europe students reported that there was limited access to computers in schools and homes, resulting in limited blogging and greater use of journals.

Stage 3: Post-trip

For both groups, the teacher conducted two structured discussion meetings for participants, for students to make sense of their experience within peer social interaction. For the China group, meetings served also as preparation for an evening forum event with parents. The teacher endeavoured through questioning to guide students to a deeper analysis, beyond the descriptive. The Europe group engaged in two discussion meetings, but did not conduct a parent forum. To facilitate in-depth reflection, the teacher asked students to write responses to structured items. For example: Did the process of teaching about intercultural learning, before you left, help with journal writing an in analysis of experience at deeper level? (Please explain) I know I have changed as a result of my experiences because ... My friends do seem to understand ... about me, but they don't understand ... The one thing I know I have learned about myself is ... I wish I could explain to my family and friends that ...

(Adapted from Paige, Cohen Kappler, Chi, Lassegard, 2002, pp. 148-154)

Findings: China group

Overview

Student journals and blogs were examined according to criteria of the three stage indicator of descriptive, dialogic, and critical reflection (Bagnall, 2005). The study acknowledges that the blog genre may differ from a journal text in audience, purpose, and language. We also acknowledge that the choice of blog or journal may have impacted the reflection that the student produced. For the purposes of this study, however, both texts are considered as affording equivalent writing opportunities, without particular reference to the text genre, and examined only for the evidence of intercultural reflection.

Descriptive writing

In their texts, the China students responded to the questions with consistently descriptive writing about school, host home and the activities of the two weeks. For example, students reported that the Chinese mostly live in small apartments which have very simple furnishings; and that there are festivals and traditions in China that allow families to get together for celebrations. From these descriptions, students made generalised observations, which may have been influenced by appropriated beliefs from teachers or parents. These included, for example, that personal space in China is apparently not so rigid amongst strangers, as the population is so dense; that life is more stressful in China, as parents work long hours and students study long hours; that all Chinese wake up early and go to bed late. Some students were able to critique their prior expectations of China. For example, some students had expected Chinese cities to be very modern and influenced by the West, but discovered that many areas of the city were 'traditional' and old.

Deductive and comparative writing

Students made some limited deductions as to Chinese values which lay behind observed behaviours. Implicit in these were comparisons between Australia and China. There was very limited inclination to think more deeply about the historical or cultural reasons for these values. They deduced for example that study is a priority and highly valued by Chinese; that, in their Australian eyes, since Chinese students are generally modestly dressed, they are a conservative population and do not want to stand out, as students do in Australia; and that respect for the elderly and social interaction with extended family members are important.

Jenny, below, when referencing teenagers' life, (but not her own, using only once the first person pronoun 'me'), empathises with the Chinese students being under so much pressure to perform academically and dedicate so much time to their studies.

Chinese teenagers and even Chinese children have to spend a lot more time studying for exams and doing homework. They are expected to do much more and receive very high results/Fortunately for me the stressed life of a Chinese teenager fin terms of study) is quite different in Australia. We focus on the all rounded child, not just pushing for extreme academic excellence. Teenagers in Australia can spend more time relaxing, hanging out and sleeping, than the Chinese that can have lessons from 7:40am-9:00pm and then go home with a lot of homework (Jenny, journal entry).

Jenny's writing displays a degree of ethnocentricity (Bennett, 1993) indicating her appropriated belief in the superiority of the Australian model, promoted by her school in its particular social context. She uses impersonal generalisation, and does not achieve significant exploration of her own culture (Paige et al, 2002); she is not able to engage in deeper reflection about the historical or cultural reasons for her own Australian educational ethos, such as vastly lower population, affluence, and access to higher education.

Inclusion of self in writing

A small number of students demonstrate in their texts the second level of intercultural reflective ability, dialogic reflection. For example, Juliette wrote that

Even at the end of the second day the requests for photos with us and questions about our love-fives haven't ceased. It is very odd being a celebrity just for being ordinary in a different way, just for looking slightly different (Juliette, journal entry).

Dialogic reflection is indicated in Juliette's thoughtful conversation with herself, about her unearned privilege of being a celebrity, and in her ability to shift perspective, and reflect about what the visit of the Australians might mean to the Chinese students.

The diary entries of three female students admitted pre-conceived ideas of China before departure and showed the ability for adaptation (Bennett, 1993) to their new reality. There was evidence of them becoming self-aware of seeing the world through their own lens and discovering that there is a different way of doing things and of seeing. Jacquie wrote that

China is very different to what I thought it would be like. Before I came I expected the city to be very modern with a big influence from the western culture. However we arrived to very traditional food, dirty overcrowded streets, cats riving on the streets, tiny places, an incredibly different way of life and culture and ... squat toilets/But although these were a shock at first, I am getting used to them and really enjoying living in a different way of life (Jacquie, journal entry).

Students' own home values were evident in their responses. With a degree of self-reflection, Peter, of Australian Chinese background, noted how delicious the Chinese food was, compared to how limited the family resources appeared. He also observed that Australian children seem spoiled when compared to the Chinese: they had less than Australian kids but it seemed plenty all the same (Peter, journal entry). This reflection involves recognition and critique of his upbringing and values.

Differences in age and gender in writing

Differences in age and gender were observed in student writing. As noted, the younger China group contained only two older students aged 16. This age difference may have enabled Paul (16) to reference his Australian life to his perceptions of the size of China, his recognition of his limited ability to understand China, and his reluctance to resort to stereotypes. His writing again reflects the notions of Bagnall's Stage 2 dialogic (conversation with self and self's perspective):

Cities like nothing in Australia, driving through outback Australian towns will never be the same again, the scale of China is nothing like even the CBD in Sydney. Driving in outer Guang Zhou (equivalent being Mascot or further) was about the same density as George Street on a busy day. Just as I thought I was getting used to China, they would regurgitate some gross bones from the duck. It's different and not different all at once, China is just unexplainable (Paul, Year 10, journal entry).

The younger boys were reluctant writers and social observers, preferring to catalogue concrete aspects of their activities. Tim (Year 8, aged 13) made very few blog entries but did record:

So yesterday me and my partner went to a toy store and brought 3 BB guns and one was a plastic one with a laser underneath it (Tim, blog entry).

However, their reluctance to write may also involve awareness that the process of reflection is difficult, and may involve anticipation that understanding may happen when students get home, as Frank has written:

China has been a mixture of 'what the hell is happening' and 'wow that was pretty cool'. I won't attempt to describe too many experiences, not because they have been indescribable, but more because they have passed by me so quickly I don't think VII be able to recall them until I'm sitting down in my room with a pack of chips from Broadway (Frank, blog entry in China).

In sum, the journals and blogs of the China group data provide evidence that the questions had assisted in scaffolding skills in observation, descriptions and simple comparisons. The questions appear to have had limited success, however, in eliciting deeper reflection on students' Australian lives or enhancing their ability to critique their own perceptions.

China post-trip meetings

At China post-trip meetings students produced further verbal reflection about the ease of their Australian lives compared to their Chinese peers. The teacher noted that several boys were more expansive verbally than they had been in writing their journal or blog. Researchers reflected that students had the opportunity to meet daily at the China school, thus the opportunity to talk about their impressions may have reduced their emotional need to document them in writing. Further, the relatively sheltered experience, demanding less self-reliance, and less immediate need to problem solve in the new environment, functionally positioned the China reflective writing differently from that of the Europe group, discussed below.

Findings: Europe group

Overview

The journals and blogs of the students in the Europe group, over a period of 6 weeks, provide evidence of Level 1 descriptive and Level 2 self-dialogue writing and some limited Level 3 critical reflection (Bagnall, 2005). They illustrate student progress in Stages 4 and 5 of the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, in their acceptance of, and adaptation to, their new environment (Bennett, 1993). There was no live contact or travel between the different schools, although students maintained online contact across schools and with their home environments in Sydney. Within the same school, students had independent timetables and saw each other on an occasional basis.

Inclusion of self in writing

Europe students wrote in-depth answers to questions about forming friendships, social interactions and social norms within the country. The refined questions appear to have given the students an effective scaffold

for their intercultural learning. The journal writing itself has played a role in helping them to critically reflect on their experience and awareness of themselves in the new culture, in relative isolation in a European family. Liz commented in a blog entry

Last night, about 6 at night, ... when it was quiet and cold, I went out in bare feet with my journal and wrote my entry ... it just calms me down and keeps me in the present and connects me with where I am: France. (Liz, blog entry).

This entry displays an awareness of self, and her awareness of the value and function of the diary itself, a mediating private space where her emerging identity in this new environment can be thought through, in English. This student's text indicates an approach to Level 3 critical reflection, where she is explicitly aware of independently synthesising new cultural information, needing to de centre and situate herself amongst new emerging relationships, while remaining connected to her sense of self.

Students grapple to interpret their relationship with European social behaviours. Students felt welcomed by their European peers and commented that there was real affection amongst teenagers in Europe, demonstrated by the kiss greeting, even when meeting new people.

Liz wrote French people are generally affectionate, the placement of kisses for a greeting is a perfect ice-breaker and even people you've only met for the first time generally intrude on your space. So when you befriend someone, affection and personal space is a free for all. Unlike Australia, where all of the people are generally unaffectionate at first meeting.

Jill wrote Personally I think it is easier to make friends in France as the young people are so accepting and affectionate.

Whether their Australian interpretation of the European kiss greeting is correct or not (i.e. whether it represents genuine affection) the students are negotiating what it means to live in European society. Through the framework of the intercultural questioning the students consciously compare the European practice to their own and process, analyse and evaluate this.

At Europe post-trip meetings students spoke about how they felt about changes in themselves and changed perceptions of their family and friends once they had returned to Australia. As noted, the Europe group were also asked to complete a written survey of their perceptions of the intervention (pre trip sessions, journaling and post-trip meetings).

Europe post-trip survey data

Students were asked whether the pre-trip teaching helped their journal writing. Eight students felt that it was of limited value, as, in their perception, students are unable to imagine the immediate onslaught of lived experience in Europe, for example:

No amount of teaching can prepare you for the experience (Erin, post-trip data).

No, it's only when in France that you think about what you see around you (Vic, post-trip data)

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However three students balanced this by adding positive comments about the impact of pre-trip strategy. Kristen wrote that the pre-trip teaching helped me focus on some aspects of French culture that I may not have given much thought to. I still found it difficult to put what I observed and felt into words.

In Mel's perception, the pre-trip strategy acted as a catalyst for Level 2 dialogic reflection, a focus on herself as seen by the other: It did make me think about the way I am perceived in public. It takes a lot to see the way you are different in a different culture.

Six students however attached greater importance to preparation for re-entry to their life in Australia, and the role of post-trip support:

It's more important to prepare students for return to Australia (Nat, post-trip data).

You need to prepare more for when you get back to reality. Important to also brief parents about how kids might feel sad about leaving Europe (Jan, post-trip data).

Changes in self perceptions

Post-trip discussion and survey asked student to comment on their perception of change in themselves due to the trip. Three dominant themes in response were new personal social skills, new perception of their language skills, and some disjunction in Australia context relationships.

Every Europe student commented on new social skills acquired through their exchange experience. Some students identify that their new social confidence skills are created by and limited to the European context, while others are able to transfer this learning to relationships in Australia:

My relationship with my Australian friends is better. I feel more mature and more confident with myself and friends. I feel more comfortable about getting to know other people (Tom, post-trip data).

I felt comfortable in my French surroundings and I miss the ease of making friends (Mel, post-trip data).

Some students expressed disjunction in local relationships, however, and that their Australian friends did not understand what they had experienced and were bored with hearing about the trip. Students wrote:

I know I have changed as a result of my experience because I do not really fit into the same friendship groups as I did before I left (Liz, post-trip data).

My friends understand that I have changed in some ways but don't understand what I have experienced (Nat, post-trip data).

The students were asked what they had learnt about themselves. Their answers reflect pride in what they achieved linguistically, in personal confidence, and in self-awareness:

I am not as bad at German as I thought I was (Vic, post-trip data).

I am fortunate to have my comfortable way of life (Kristen, post-trip data).

I do not have to be so shy, and I have gained more confidence (Pat, post-trip data).

At the meetings all students were keen to share their experience in social interaction. They displayed a deeper level of reflection and intercultural understanding through their discussions, as they discovered others had similar thoughts or experience.

Student responses to the post-trip survey display some elements of Level 3 writing, that is, the independent synthesis of cultural information, and the use of this to construct new relationships and behaviour. Student data suggest that significant intercultural learning takes place after the return, if students are given the opportunity to process it with peers in social interaction. These findings confirm Paige et al's (2002) comment on the conflict of values and identity which can occur in students returning, but also the reflective negotiation of change in values, and new sense of self which can occur in the re-acculturation process (Paige et al, 2002, p. 156).

7. Discussion of both cohorts The use of a three stage intervention has successfully encouraged students to critically observe their surroundings, and reflect on their experience. The pre-teaching, the questions answered in journals and blogs, and the post-trip meetings gave students a framework in which to consider and report their cultural encounters. The process offered students the opportunity to observe, reflect, adapt and, to a limited extent, to become self-aware. The remarks below discuss the design of questions, the function of age, gender and cognitive ability in students, and the need for development of teacher intercultural skills.

Design of questions

The study highlights that the design of questions is important. Concrete questions (noticing, comparing) remain important to help students critically observe life in the country. Relevance of questions to students' immediate interests is essential. The teacher intends to include in future a greater number of more personal questions, such as How do you think you appeared ...; Do you find yourself thinking or behaving differently? These questions place greater demand on students to see themselves within the new culture, and may provide them with evidence of change in themselves after the trip, in the process of reflection.

Age and cognitive ability of students

Leaving aside unknown variables of background experience, the study has secondly demonstrated that age and cognitive ability may be factors in the level of analysis possible. As seen in the China trip students, comparison abilities were good, but these did not necessarily lead to deeper critical thinking or self-reflection. Indeed it has been argued that intercultural teaching that limits itself to promoting cross-cultural comparisons, is leading only to greater recourse to stereotypes (Dervin, 2010). Student reluctance to engage in self-reflection may also be due, however, to not possessing the conceptual vocabulary to go beyond cross-cultural observations. Self-reflection needs more explicit scaffolding in the questions. The teacher is mindful of balance between teaching these notions, expectations, and of students' developmental readiness. This raises the question of the most appropriate age for maximum benefit from exchange trips, and, similarly, of the need for age-appropriate intercultural goals for exchange trips.

Gender difference

The study observed some gender difference in student engagement with the writing tasks, girls producing considerably more written data than boys. Current literature cautions against a simplistic response to the issue of boys' relationship with writing tasks (Gill & Start, 2000), where factors of indigeneity, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and residence affect literacy level much more significantly than gender (Alloway & Dalley-Trim, 2006). Nevertheless, the researchers, in future iterations, will establish alternative media for collecting and saving text, audio and visual materials. With students' growing visual literacy and technology skills, a multimedia site, to which students could upload photos and comments on the day's activities, may offer a more engaging alternative to all students, if computer access is available.

Teacher ability and training

The study confirms the central role of the teacher's ability to guide intercultural learning, particularly in post-trip re-acculturation and support for emerging new identities. Teachers need skills to support students in moving beyond narration of events and observations, to a level of reflection where they consider their own perspectives on themselves, Australian society and the target language country experience. A further stage of analysis of such a study could focus on the intercultural development of the teacher involved in exchange programs. Further research is needed into new skills and identities for intercultural language teachers.

Conclusion

This study has demonstrated the application of principles of intercultural language learning to an explicit teaching intervention, in a school exchange context. While there are clearly many uncontrolled variables in these two exchange contexts, which may have impacted student response (for example, students' host families, students' prior travel experience), the study suggests that a teaching intervention facilitates intercultural learning outcomes in students, affords a space for a shared experience, and creates a community of learners with common focus.

The study points to the need for intercultural awareness and skills in the teacher, in continuity with his/her existing intercultural pedagogy in language classrooms. With its focus on school aged learners, the study points to new ways to maximise contextualised learning in the student exchanges which have become an important part of language education.

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Robyn Moloney is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at Macquarie University. She teaches Languages Methodology to pre-service teachers, and supervises a number of doctoral projects. Her research interests include intercultural language learning and teacher development. Previously she was a secondary languages teacher.

Rosalba Genua-Petrovic is Director of Languages at International Grammar School, Sydney. This role encompasses supervision of language programs from Preschool to Year 12, and organisation of the school's extensive exchange programs. Rosalba teaches Italian at both primary and secondary levels.