The multiplying nodes of Indigenous self-government and public administration.

Heritz, Joanne

Indigenous self-government in Canada refers to autonomy for Indigenous peoples in the aftermath of colonization. It spans a broad spectrum that ranges from more identifiable First Nations land claims agreements to lesser known indigenous-local intergovernmental partnerships. Policy actors are Indigenous and non-Indigenous and may include chiefs, city planners, and community advocates, who are active in negotiating at all levels of government across Canada. "Self-government agreements give Aboriginal groups greater control and law-making authority over a comprehensive range of jurisdictions, including governance, social and economic development, education, health, lands and more" (aadnc-aandc.gc.ca).

Self-government for Indigenous governments is complex and its accompanying research interests are broad. The emerging trend I wish to discuss regarding Indigenous self-government is the discovery of numerous nodes of Indigenous governments and groups that are active in seeking some measure of control over their social, cultural, economic and political development. While this work is generally local in nature, its network includes all levels of government, and as such, it accentuates the growing prominence of multilevel governance. Self-determination within some Indigenous communities may operate on a smaller scale with fewer actors and as such, are just being picked up on the research radar. The implication for public administration not only involves navigating these evolving systems of Indigenous multilevel governance, but also coming to terms with Indigenous struggles with identity, inclusion, intergovernmental cooperation and internationalization. Negotiations between Indigenous and non-Indigenous actors are facilitated through formal and informal networks, emphasizing the roles of street-level bureaucrats and their relationships with Indigenous communities.

Understanding Indigenous identity issues is crucial for identifying the struggles associated with self-determination. Peters and Andersen 2013 provide frames of reference for Indigenous negotiation of identity in major urban centres in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States for the increasing number of Indigenous peoples who have made urban centres their homes for various reasons, including government intervention. The complexity of identity as the urban experience is demonstrated in Andersen's chapter that provides a definition of urban Aboriginal as distinctive and consisting of twelve elements. Compounding identity issues is the reluctance of any level of government in Canada to claim responsibility for urban Aboriginal people. This results in service provision being delegated to an increasing number of Aboriginal organizations which function on unstable funding. Building urban Indigenous communities does not always fit into dominant, mainstream imaginings, let alone making spaces in urban centres for Indigenous identities and cultural innovation.

Indigenous inclusion in mainstream policy processes is a crucial component of Indigenous self-determination. Walker, Jojola and Natcher's 2013 volume regarding reclaiming Indigenous planning is premised on the struggles of Indigenous communities to be included in social, political and economic agendas at all levels of government, or face the consequences of being "planned out of existence" (xvi). The contributions from Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States situate traditional knowledge and cultural identity as integral to Indigenous planning in Indigenous communities, urban centres, land and resources. However, they admit that Indigenous access to mainstream planning institutions is not always accommodated. Planning outcomes, therefore, often fail to reflect the rights and interests of Indigenous peoples. Compounding these tensions, in the context of Aboriginal self-determination, is the reality that urban centres are located on Indigenous traditional lands.

Building on planning and development research with studies undertaken by scholars in Canada, the United States and Mexico, Skelton and Lopez 2013 argue Indigenous planning should be an inclusive community-led process that builds local capacity through processes of co-construction, facilitated by an open attitude and a gendered lens. The role of the planner requires respecting Indigenous world-views, facilitating interaction with Indigenous peoples and local institutions, and acquiring knowledge of the social, political, and cultural community contexts.

Intergovernmental cooperation and collaboration is a link that has positive outcomes for building capacity for Indigenous communities. The "evolutionary" aspect of Alcantara and Nelles' 2016 research refers to positive relationships between Indigenous governments and their neighbour municipalities in Canada. After identifying over 300 formal agreements, they selected four cases to analyze the relationship between Indigenous and municipal governments for "nuts and bolts" municipal services such as fire, waste disposal, and emergency response. This is timely research that is prescriptive in guiding Indigenous governments and municipalities to work in partnership to build their communities beyond contracting for nuts and bolts services. While Indigenous and municipal governments face constraints to deliver desired programs and services, the authors discovered that some of these governments are partnering in projects despite capacity and resource constraints. Their findings also suggest that a shared civic identity unites political leaders and civil servants in welcoming collaborative proposals. There are obstacles nevertheless, but their overall message is that intergovernmental cooperation is gaining more traction in strengthening community capital going forward.

Internationalization broadens the scope of Indigenous self-determination, accentuating multilevel governance and its broadened policy networks beyond the state level. Berg-Nordlie, Saglie and Sullivan's 2015 contribution to Indigenous research explores the role international organizations are playing in Indigenous self-determination. The internationalization of Indigenous mobilization consists of the following: a global Indigenous identity based on diverse peoples united by historical experiences and political issues; Indigenous groups who learn from the experiences of others; Indigenous peoples who are increasingly engaged in international networking through informal networks, NGOs, and organizations within the UN; and Indigenous movements who have tapped into Indigenous-oriented international law, transcending state borders. Internationalization broadens the scope of analysis beyond the settler countries of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and United States, to include Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico, Norway, and Sweden, which facilitates exposure to more states and their responses to Indigenous groups and the latter's demands for inclusion, representation, and self-determination in divergent ways. Internationalization creates opportunities for research on institutional arrangements, such as de Costa's chapter that compares practices of defining Indigenous peoples. Originally administrative markers, legal status designated individual and community status, which would impact on struggles for Indigenous rights. Other institutional arrangements that are considered are individual country cases that range from Maori representation in national and local government in New Zealand, to Sami representation and self-determination in Norway and Sweden.

In summary, trends in Aboriginal self-government and public administration highlight the numerous urban and rural communities where Indigenous governments and groups struggle with identity issues and inclusion in policy processes, and where some resort to international bodies to seek resolution. The evidence of increasing capacity of Indigenous and non-Indigenous governments to forge new relationships provides a positive signal to public administration of their role in addressing and accommodating these new opportunities of intergovernmental cooperation across Canada.

References

Alcantara, Christopher and Jen Nelles. 2016. A Quiet Evolution: The Emergence of Indigenous-Local Intergovernmental Partnerships in Canada. The Institute of Public Administration of Canada Series in Public Management and Governance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Berg-Nordlie, Mikkel, Jo Saglie and Ann Sullivan, eds. 2015. Indigenous Politics: Institutions, Representation, Mobilisation. Colchester, UK: ECPR Press.

Peters, Evelyn and Chris Andersen, eds. 2013. Indigenous in the City: Contemporary Identities and Cultural Innovation. Vancouver: UBC Press.

Skelton, Ian and Octavio Ixtacuy Lopez, eds. 2013. Models of Indigenous Development. Champaign, IL: Common Ground Publishing LLC as part of the Global Studies Book Series.

Walker, Ryan, Ted Jojola, and David Natcher, eds. 2013. Reclaiming Indigenous Planning. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen' University Press.

Joanne Heritz is an Instructor in the Department of Political Sciences at McMaster University.