Demographic variables and job performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria.

Ugwu, Cyprian Ifeanyi ; Ugwu, Mercy Ebere

1. Introduction

The South East Zone is situated in the lowland forest region of Nigeria, with minor parts in the Niger Delta, where the Niger River fans out into the Atlantic Ocean in a vast network of creeks and mangrove swamps on the Bight of Bonny. It is also located between latitude 5-7 degrees north and longitude 6-8 degrees east, and occupies a total landmass of about 16,000 square miles in Southern Nigeria. The Zone is surrounded by a host of large rivers (Oriji, 2001).

It is important to note that this Zone suffered greatly from the Nigerian civil war that lasted for three years from 1967 to 1970. This war supposedly affected library, educational and human capital development in the Zone. It is against this backdrop that this Zone was chosen for the study; to see how the libraries in the Zone especially university libraries can become very effective through research on the predictors of job performance of the library staff.

The south eastern geopolitical zone is made up of five states with five federal universities namely: the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) Enugu State; NnamdiAzikiwe University (NAU) Awka, Anambra State; Federal University of Technology Owerri, (FUTO) Imo State; Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike (MOUAU), Abia State and the recently added Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo(FUNAI), Ebonyi State. The federal university libraries in South East Nigeria were established and funded by the federal government of Nigeria. The funding usually comes in the form of grants or Library Development Fund (L.D.F.) to cater for collection development, staff capacity building and recruitment as well as the day-to-day administration of these libraries. These libraries have the mandate to fulfill the vision and mission of their parent institutions. Though they are funded by the federal government of Nigeria, the funds are usually not sufficient enough for the development of library and information services in South East Nigeria. In their study of the libraries and librarians in South East Nigeria, Nwosu, Ugwoegbu and Okeke (2013) found that the librarians were poorly motivated and performed moderately in their workplaces. The implication of this finding is that the job performance of the librarians must be improved. This calls for the understanding of the factors that affect job performance of which demographic variables have been so identified in the literature. It is important that we also understand how far these variables can predict librarians' job performance as a right step in the direction of developing performance improvement strategies. Therefore, this study will focus on determining the predictive values of demographic variables in relation to the job performance of librarians in federal university libraries in SouthEast Nigeria.

1.1. Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between demographic variables and job performance of librarians working in the university libraries in South East Nigeria. Specifically, this study seeks to determine:

1) The demographic profiles of librarians in university libraries in South-East Nigeria.

2) The level of task performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria.

3) The level of contextual performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria.

4) The relationship between demographic variables and task performance of librarians.

5) The relationship between demographic variables and contextual performance of librarians.

1.2. Research Questions

The following five research questions guided this study:

1) What are the demographic profiles of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria in terms of their age, gender, education, years of work experience and job level or designation?

2) What is the level of task performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria?

3) What is the level of contextual performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria?

4) What is the relationship between demographic variables and task performance of librarians?

5) What is the relationship between demographic variables and contextual performance of librarians?

1.3. Hypotheses

The following two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

H01: There is no joint relationship between demographic variables and task performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria

H02: There is no relative relationship between demographic variables and contextual performance of librarians.

2. Literature review

2.1. Concept of Demography

Demography, according to Abadina and Mba (2014), is the study of the overall social positions of individuals within the social and economic domain. This entails occupation and income, educational attainment or level and family structure or size. Furthermore, it encompasses the study of the size, structure and distribution of the populations of human beings.

Demographics may also be defined as the quantifiable characteristics of a given population. According to Popoola and Akande (2009) demography is the study of population that involves birth, death and diseases in a particular community. Modern day demographic study is however not only population conscious but also has a time dimension (Popoola and Akande, 2009).

Demographic variables or factors have also been defined by Palakurthic and Parks (2000) as the socio-economic characteristics of sales force personnel like age, educational qualification, sex, marital status and years of service. Based on this definition, Hassan and Ogunkoya (2012) identified demographic variables as education, gender, marital status and years of service. According to Oyewole and Popoola (2015), demographic variables are personal factors that include age, gender, educational level, tenure or working experience, job level and monthly salary. Some frequently used demographic variables as gleaned from the literature include age, sex (gender), race / ethnicity, education, location of residence, socio-economic status (SES), income, employment status, religion, marital status, ownership (home, car, pet, etc), language, mobility, population size and family size.

In the present study, demographic variables of librarians are referred to as their quantifiable personal characteristics. These quantifiable characteristics as covered in this study include age, gender, education, job position or designation and years of work experience. However, studies related to demographic variables are abundant in the literature but few studies have been carried out on the relationship between demographic variables and the job performance of librarians.

2.2. Concept of Job Performance

Job performance is a commonly used concept in industrial and organizational psychology. It refers to how people perform their job. Ojo (2009) defined job performance as an extent to which the day-to-day work is being carried out. Hose (2012) simply defined it as the way employees perform their work. Also, job performance has been defined as the total expected value to the organization of the discrete behavioural episodes that an individual performs over a stipulated period of time (Motowidlo, 2003). Many researchers have found that job performance is not unidimensional (Hunthausen, 2000; Motowidlo, Borman, and Smit, 1997). Job performance is therefore, an important criterion that relates to organizational outcomes and success. Borman and Motowidlow (1993) indicated two types of job performance: Task performance and Contextual performance.

2.2.1. Task performance--This involves activities that are carried out to serve and maintain the technical part of an organization such as supervising and planning (Motowidlo, 2003). Also task performance describes an individual's execution of the core duties that might be formally listed in his or her job description. It describes obligatory behavior of a person. This refers to activities directly contributing to or enabling the production of goods or services (Motowidlo, Borman and Smit, 1997). Koopmans et al (2011) developed indicators of task performance that were used as the basis for the task performance measures in the present study. These indicators include; completing job tasks, work quantity, work quality, job skills, job knowledge, keeping knowledge up to-date, working accurately and neatly, planning and organizing, administration, decision making, solving problems, oral and written communication, monitoring and controlling resources.

2.2.2. Contextual performance--This refers to spontaneous behaviors through which a worker supports and enhances the workplace environment. These might include the ability to see what needs to be done even when it is not explicitly part of one's formal job description, as well as transmission of positive attitudes to and among managers, colleagues and patrons (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997). Contextual performance contributes to the organizational effectiveness through its effects on the psychological, social and organizational context of work (Motowidlo, 2003) which includes all issues affecting individuals or increasing individuals' readiness to perform with valuable behaviours as well as actions that have some effect on the organization's tangible resources. Besides, Koopmans (2011) developed indicators of contextual performance that were used as the basis for contextual performance measures in this study. These indicators include; extra tasks, effort, initiative, enthusiasm, attention to duty, resourcefulness, industriousness, persistence, motivation, dedication, pro-activity, creativity, cooperating with and helping, politeness, effective communication, interpersonal relations and organizational commitment

2.3. Distinguishing task and contextual performance

Studies have shown that task performance and contextual performance typically correlate with different predictors. For example job experience explains a considerable amount of the variation in task performance, but the relationship with contextual performance is considerably smaller (Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994).

Despite this evidence of the distinctiveness of task and contextual performance, it remains a fact that the two dimensions are not entirely separate. This should not be too surprising considering that both contribute substantially to overall measures of performance and that a certain amount of common method variance is inevitable in most measures of performance (Arvey and Murphy, 1998). These authors conclude, therefore, that task and contextual performance are related; but distinct, and both should be taken into account in any attempts at understanding employee, group or organizational performance.

2.4. Age and job performance

Few studies were reported in the literature on the link between age and job performance (Anumaka and Ssemugenyi, 2013; Salthouse et al, 2011; Lourence, 2010; Adeogun, 2000). Lourence (2010) found that older sales representatives in a US retail services company reacted more to monetary incentives and performance feedback and less to recognition, and vice versa for younger sales representatives. Adeogun (2008) reported that money did not motivate the age group to increase performance of employees at multicultural for profit institutions of higher learning in US. In trying to establish the relationship between age and performance, Pounder (2000) observed that the average age of people in the workplace is getting higher, with increasing number of middle-aged and less old workers employed in many different jobs. In line with this, Anumaka and Ssemugenyi (2013) found the age bracket of majority of workers in academic institutions to fall between 20 and 39. Attention of researchers was also drawn to other age related factors of job performance such as mental abilities. Age-variations in mental abilities are likely to affect productivity levels, because they are one of the most important determinants of education and work success (Barrett and Depinet 1991). Schmidt and Hunter (1998) investigated how different individual characteristics, such as education, work experience and general mental abilities, relate to job performance. They found that mental ability tests predict a person's job performance better than any other observable characteristics. Currie and Thomas (1999) and Tyler et al (2000) found that mental ability level measured at young ages determine adult income levels, adjusting for socioeconomic characteristics.

2.5. Gender and Job Performance

One difficulty encountered by investigators of sex differences and performance among workers in organizational settings is the difficulty of comparing the performance of men and women carrying out exactly the same job owing to gender segregation in the allocation of work tasks (Rydstedt and Evans, 1998). However, Kundson N.R. cited by Hassan and Ogunkoya (2014) believed that women were as able as men if given similar exposure. Although, according to Hartman cited by Hassan and Ogunkoya (2014), men were seen as more powerful than women and viewed good performance as a male characteristic. The reason may be that women have selected career choice. Onwuchekwa (1990) confirmed this when she concluded that women in most cases engaged in some form of work which require mainly social and interpersonal skills. Ogunleye (2006), however, says that technology has increased women's participation in both private and public sectors. They now compete with men in almost every available job in the society even those that are considered exclusively male dominated such as science, technology and mathematics related professions, but the earlier works by Graham (1997) and Ogunleye (1998) showed that women were still under represented in these professions. According to Elleus (1994), disproportionate male-female ratios in some professions make it difficult for several women to interact well with their male colleagues.

There are perhaps other views on gender differences in organizations. Kanter (1997) believes that gender is something that is external to the occupation when he maintains that men are more likely to be located on job ladders which have a high ceiling, and which, therefore, provide greater opportunities for promotion. Consequently, the gender difference in opportunity structure explains the observed difference in the career behavior of men and women in organizations. If women are provided with the same opportunities as men, their behavior should be more similar. On the contrary, Opprenheiner (1998) believes that gender is an institutionalized characteristic of the work place and maintains that when employers seek to hire a secretary, they are looking for a woman secretary, since in the 20th century being female has come to be perceived as a necessary attribute for performing secretarial work. Thus, gender is not something that is external to the occupation or organization rather it is inherent in rules, roles and responsibilities of the organization (Davies, 1992). For example, organization commitment can be measured in terms of the number of hours a person is physically present on the job, or those (men) who are free to spend extra hours in the organization (Bailyn, 1993).

2.6. Education and Job Performance

Education may be seen as a process or a product. Hacket cited by Hassan and Ogunkoya (2014) defined education as a process of acquiring background knowledge of a subject. It is person rather than job or company oriented. It is the knowledge and abilities, development and character and mental power resulting from intellectual training. Education can influence attitudes both positively and negatively toward work and commitment. It is generally believed that education plays an important role in employee job performance, but the relationship between themeasures of education and job performance (or productivity) is not largely known (Wise, A. David cited by Hassan and Ogunkoya, 2014).

In a widely cited work based on meta-analysis of the relationship between education level and core task performance, Ng and Feldman (2009) found that education was positively related to task performance. Another author (Kuneel et al, 2004) also believes education facilitates performance in most jobs. Finally, past research in this area has focused primarily on the effects of educational level on core task performance (Karatepe, Undudag, Menevis, Hadzimehmeddagic, and Baddar, 2006; Maglen, 1990). Thus, it is important to examine the impact of educational level on multiple dimensions of job performance.

2.7. Tenure or Years of Service or working experience and Job Performance

Education as pointed out .earlier is not job-oriented; so it is needful that job-oriented factors such as working experience or job tenure should be examined from the perspectives of the relationship between working experience and job performance. The evidence of a curvilinear relationship between organizational tenure and job performance was found by Ng and Feldman (2010). According to them, although the relationship of organizational tenure with job performance is positive in general, the strength of the association decreases as organizational tenure increases. It is important to note here that contradictory results exist in the literature on the relationship between job tenure and job performance. A 2013 meta-analysis on this topic determined that job tenure was largely unrelated to core task performance, as measured by subjective performance assessments (Ng, and Feldman (2013), whereas a 2003 meta-analysis found that job performance was weakly related to job experience, overall (Sturman, 2003). A study of open-end equity mutual fund managers in Taiwan by Lee, Yen and Chen (2008) provides a more specific example. The authors sought to explain the success of mutual funds by comparing the explanatory effects of job tenure and seniority, which was defined as the length of time an individual had been in the mutual fund industry. Ultimately, tenure was found to be a better predictor of fund performance than seniority. In fact, the impact of seniority tended to disappear after tenure was accounted. More specifically, the impact of tenure on core task performance was most significant between 3 and 6 years with an organization, and gradually diminishes until about 14 years of employment (Ng and Feldman (2010). Since the relationship between tenure and job performance is not strong, a practice of job rotation can have positive effects on employees' job performance while simultaneously helping employers develop their human capital (Ng and Feldman, 2013).

2.8. Job level and job performance

The relationship between job level or job grade and job performance was scarcely discussed in the performance evaluation literature. The study by Kahya (2007) reports the effects of job characteristics (physical efforts and job grade), and working conditions (environmental conditions and hazards) in addition to experience and education level on task performance and contextual performance. A total 154 employees in 18 items at a medium sized metal company participated in this study. The results showed that there were substantial relationships between employee performance and both job grade and environmental conditions. Davis and Kohlmeyer (2005) found that an employee's rank within the organization moderates the relationships between attitudes, motivation and performance. These authors also found that lower ranking employees within the organization perform better when they were in agreement with their performance standards established by their supervisors.

2.9. Marital Status and Job Performance

The condition of being married or unmarried is marital status. Some studies have found that women who held both work and family roles reported better physical and mental health and consequently better job performance than was reported by women who stayed at home or single (Jordan and Ziteck, 2012). Korenman and Neumark (1991) tried to determine whether marriage really makes men more productive. In the first part of their study, they used data from the National Longitudinal survey of young men. The sample consisted of men from 14 to 24 in 1966, and each individual was followed for 15years. The sample was restricted to white men who completed school by 1976. The sample size was 1,541. The sample statistics showed that non-wage characteristics differed according to a man's marital status. Married men in the sample were older and they had more work experience than single men. The results also showed that, on the average, those who completed schooling worked less than the married people.

3. Review of empirical literature

Very few previous studies have supported the contributions of demographic variables to the overall job performance of employees or to task based and contextual components of employee performance (Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994;Osaremen and Ogunleye, 2009; Azil, Shaffril and Uli, 2010; Elvira and Town, 2011; Tari and Anike, 2011; Olorunsola, 2012; Amusa, Iyoro and Olabisi, 2013; Hassan and Ogunkoya, 2014; Met and Ali, 2014). Although, work in this area continues, empirical knowledge of librarians' demographic variables and the extent to which they predict their job performance is still very limited (Vasquez-Colina, 2005). In a study to test the usefulness of the distinction between task performance and contextual performance using questionnaire as a research instrument, Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) asked supervisors to rate 421 US Air Force Mechanics on their task performance, contextual performance and overall performance. The multiple correlation between overall performance as the dependent variable and task performance and contextual performance was 54, (p<.01). Hierarchical regressions showed that task performance explains 13%, (p<.01) of the variance in overall performance whereas contextual performance explains 1%, (p<.01). They found that task performance and contextual performance contribute independently to overall performance. Other findings also revealed that experience was more highly correlated with task performance than with contextual performance, and personality variables were more highly correlated with contextual performance than with task performance. This study showed that both task and contextual performance contributed independently to overall job performance and could also be determined simultaneously in a study. This helps to explain the fact that job performance is not one dimensional which is the argument of the present study. In another study, Hassan and Ogunkoya (2014) found that demographic or socio-economic factors accounted for 13% of factors explaining the performance of job of the insurance salesmen. However, marital status and job tenure were found to be mostly predictive of job performance of insurance salesmen.

Another study was carried out by Azril, Shaffril and Uli (2010) on "the influence of socio-demographic factors on work performance among employees of government agriculture agencies in Malaysia", and the results showed that age, working experience and gross monthly salary had significant and positive relationship with work performance. The study by Met and Ali (2014) investigated the moderating effects of demographic factors (age, gender, education level, tenure, and job level) on the relationship between monetary motivation and employees' job performance at oil and gas offshore production facilities in Malaysia. The results of the General Linear Model univariate analysis of variance showed that there was a significant moderating effect of tenure and job level on the relationship between monetary motivation and employees' job performance, while gender did not show any significant moderating effect. Age and education level showed weak moderating effect. Employees with tenure of 31 years or more reported significantly higher job performance level compared to their younger counterparts with tenure 10 years or less. Managers and supervisors scored significantly higher job performance level than technicians. Tari and Anike (2011) investigated the relationship between employee characteristics and job performance in Bayelsa State Ministry of Education. The characteristics under investigation were gender, age, educational level and experience. The results of the study revealed that a relationship existed between all the characteristics examined and job performance. It was thus, concluded that the poor performance of the staff of Ministry of Education could be attributed to employee characteristics. Olorunsola (2012) tried to find outwhether the administrative staff job performance was related to their sexual characteristics. The findings revealed that the administrative staff job performance was high. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the job performance of male and female administrative staff in the universities. Recommendations were made based on the findings that university management should encourage and motivate the workers more by providing conducive environment to sustain and boost the morale of the workers for them to give their best to realize educational goals. Also, more opportunities should be given to both male and female administrative workers to perform by organizing workshops, seminars and conferences, both within and outside Nigeria, so that the tempo at which the workers work may be sustained and possibly be improved upon. Anumaka and Ssemugenyi(2013) delved into the influence of gender on staff or employee productivity in selected private universities in Kampala City, Uganda. It was found that there was a slight difference in work productivity between male and female. However, this difference was too insignificant to pose a significant difference between the two categories (male and female).

In a more recent study, Oyewole and Popoola (2015) examined the personal factors and work locus of control as determinants of job performance of library personnel in federal colleges of education in Nigeria. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship among independent variables (age, years of working in the library, academic qualification, position/rank, monthly salary and work locus of control) and job performance of respondents. The study also showed that the joint effects of independent variables on job performance of library personnel were significant (F (7, 165) = 3.95; P<.05). It is recommended that library managers and administrators should endeavour to recruit people with internal locus of control, give considerations to age, academic qualification, job position/rank, years of working experience in the library, and monthly salary of library personnel when planning in order to enhance their job performance.

4. Research methodology

The design of the study was a correlational survey design. According to Nworgu (1991), a correlational study seeks to establish what relationship exists between two or more variables. This relationship may be positive or negative but its degree is called correlation coefficient. According to Powell (1995) correlational research may well permit one to predict change in one variable based on knowledge about another variable. This design was chosen because it would help the researcher to determine the relationship between demographic variables and job performance of librarians. If this relationship is found to exist, it then means that one may predict the job performance of librarians based on the knowledge of their demography. The demographic variables are the antecedent or predictor variables while the job performance of librarians is the criterion variable or the variable that is being predicted.

The population of this study consisted of 100 librarians working as supervisors in federal university libraries in South East Nigeria and made up of forty seven (47) librarians from UNN, fifteen (15) librarians from NAU, twenty six (26) librarians from FUTO, seven (7) librarians from MOUAU and five (5) librarians from FUNAI. These supervisors were used mainly because they were better placed to rate other librarians, and this approach was well intended to reduce personal biases in self-reported rating. Since the population was not large enough to warrant sampling, the research instrument was administered to all of them. This is because Vernoy and Vernoy (1997) stated that where the size of the population was small, sampling might not be necessary indicating that the entire population would be studied.

The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed by the researchers and was entitled, "Demographic Variables for Job Performance Questionnaire (DVJPQ). This questionnaire was made up of three sections, A, B and C. Section A was intended to identify the university libraries for this study. Section B was used to gather information on the demographic variables of the respondents such as age, gender, education, work experience, job level or rank and marital status. Section C was used to collect data on the levels of job performance of librarians. It consisted of two clusters, C1 and C2. Cluster C1 was used to collect data on the task performance of librarians while cluster C2 was on contextual performance of librarians. The questionnaire items for clusters C1 and C2 were based on Koopmans et al (2011) indicators of task and contextual performance. The items were homogenously keyed into a 4-point rating scale of ' 1 = Very Low" "2 = Low" and "3 = High" and '4 = Very High' as measures of the responses on the items for the levels of job performance of librarians. The questionnaire was face validated by at least three lecturers in the Department of Library and Information Science. They were asked to validate the instruments based on the following parameters: language structure, clarity, use of technical terms, relevance and coverage. They were also asked to correct and modify the items as a way to improve the instruments.

Research Assistants were used to administer the copies of the questionnaire to the respondents. They were briefed on how to administer the questionnaire as well as how to assist the respondents by clarifying some items (if need arises) and by being as friendly as possible. Part of this briefing included timing so that the Research Assistants would know when to go back for collection of copies of the questionnaire distributed. They were told to start collecting after two days of distribution. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Specifically, Percentages, Mean, Standard Deviation and the Spearman's correlation. This analysis was performed with the aid of the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). The two hypotheses that guided this study were tested at 0.05 probability level using multiple regression analysis. This helped to determine the demographic variables that are predictors of librarians' job performance and the percentage of the job performance of librarians that can be explained by demographic variables.

5. Findings

5.1. Demographic factors of the Respondents

Table 1 below shows that the librarians working in university libraries in South East Nigeria have different personal characteristics or demographic factors. These characteristics can be explained from their age, gender, education, job level/rank, marital status and tenure or work experience. For instance, the age bracket of majority of the librarians was found to fall between 31-40years. The female librarians were found to be slightly above the male librarians in number. Majority of the librarians were married. Also, most of the librarians had work experience above 31years. Those in the rank of Senior Librarians have the largest number and finally majority of the librarians had masters' degree as their highest academic qualification.

5.2. Level of the Librarians' task based performance

The level of the Librarians' task based performance as rated by their supervisors is as shown in Table 2 below. The analysis of all the item measures was accomplished with the aid of descriptive statistical tools. Mean and standard deviations were used for this purpose.

The results in Table 2 showed that the majority of the librarians had good task performance as reflected in the ratings of their task performance. For instance, the 13 items of the instruments received positive ratings. As shown in the table, the librarians have the ability to complete job tasks (mean=2.80 and standard deviation = 0.40), the quantity of work performed (mean = 3.20 and standard deviation = 0.39), the quality of work performed (mean = 2.69 and standard deviation = 0.67), ability to solve problems arising from one's job (mean = 2.65 and standard deviation = 0.76), ability to monitor and control library resources (mean = 2.77 and standard deviation = 0.57), knowledge of the job performed (mean = 2.85 and standard deviation = 0.35), ability to work with accurately and neatly (mean = 2.70 and standard deviation = 0.39), and ability to write and communicate orally (mean = 2.90 and standard deviation = 0.32). The overall mean score of the task performance of librarians is 2.72 and standard deviation is 0.62. This implies that librarians in federal university libraries in Nigeriahave high task performance. The result of this study revealed that the task performances of librarians were found to be high. Some of these highly performed tasks include: completing job tasks, producing quantity and quality works, working accurately and neatly, solving problems, oral and written communication and knowledge of the job. These findings were in agreement with those of Azril, Shaffril and Uli(2010) who identified work quality, work quantity and punctuality as indicators of job performance. The findings also are in conformity with those of Oyewole and Popoola (2015) who identified punctuality, communication, completing job task on time, problem solving and work quality as some of the major indicators of job performance.

The greatest of all the task- based performance of the librarians, as shown from the above table, is work quantity. This is not surprising because in all the libraries, promotion of library personnel is tied to the quantity of work done within the appraisal year. For the academic librarians, work quantity is determined by their number of published works such as books, book chapters, journal articles and conference proceedings. For non-professional staff, the work quantity is usually scored on a scale of 1 to 6 or more. Because the aspiration of every academic librarian or non-professional staff is to receive promotions regularly, he/she often tries to increase the quantity of his or her work or improve upon this for better performance appraisal. An academic librarian, in realization of these facts or conditions of promotion, tries to get more publications and also increase the number of his/her conference attendance as well as conference presentations, to earn his/her promotion as and when due

The next greatest of all the task- based performance of librarians is oral and written communication. This is not surprising because of the structure of the university library and the nature of the services it provides. The university library has a hierarchical structure which allows either top- down or bottom--up communication. This means that communication is a very important activity in the library either among staff members or between staff and their supervisors or superiors. In the delivery of services, communication is a core function. This is because new services or new arrivals have to be communicated to the library users for them to be aware. This is one of the reasons why the library management often insists that staff must have good oral and written expressions in other to be promoted. For professional Librarians, oral and written communication is a key factor because significant proportion of their jobs is to publish or perish as well as attend conferences to present papers.

The third greatest of all the task--based performance of librarians as seen from the above table, is planning and organizing of library services. This finding is not surprising because the library is a provision which requires that its resources and services must be available and accessible. Another important element of a provision is utilization. Therefore, planning and organization are needed for the library resources and services to be available, accessible and utilized. If there is a deficiency in any of these library provision criteria, then it means that the critical functions of planning and organization have been neglected by the professional staff of the library.

5.3. Level of the Librarians' contextual performance

The contextual performance of librarians represents their extra roles. The level at which the librarians performed these roles, as rated by their supervisors, was determined using Mean and Standard Deviation scores as presented in Table 3 below.

On the whole, the results in Table 3 showed that majority of the librarians had good contextual performance. For instance, each of the 13 items of the instrument on contextual performance received positive ratings from the librarians. The results also revealed the following supposedly hidden talents of the librarians; ability to cooperate with and help others (mean = 2.95 and standard deviation = 0.40), ability to communicate effectively on the job (mean = 2.75 and standard deviation = 0.56), ability to deal with others politely (mean = 2.75 and standard deviation = 0.59), ability to bring up or initiate new ideas on the job (mean = 2.90 and standard deviation = 0.39), ability to cultivate and maintain interpersonal relationships (mean = 2.58 and standard deviation = 0.95), and ability to dedicate oneself to duty (mean = 2.80 and standard deviation = 0.35). The overall mean score is 2.69 and standard deviation is 0.72.

The results of this study revealed that the contextual performance of librarians was found to be high. This high contextual performance of librarians reflects their capabilities in performing extra roles defined by such activities as attention to duty, cooperating with others, politeness in dealing with others, effective communication in the job, initiative on the job, interpersonal relations, making extra effort to complete tasks, dedication to duty and resourcefulness in accomplishing tasks. These findings concur with those of Oyewole and Popoola (2015) who identified the following contextual performance indicators as consisting of the extra roles of librarians: ability to work with co-workers, ability to attend properly to requests from clients, creativity and diligence to work, ability to provide leadership and coordinating ability.

The greatest of all the contextual performance of Librarians is cooperating with and helping others. This is not surprising because librarianship is evolving and emphasizing cooperation or collaboration and partnerships. Mentorship has been enthroned which is creating opportunities for teamwork and cooperation among staff. Librarians are now helping one another to get published and to get work accomplished on schedule. In the university libraries studied, cooperation among staff is one of the visible criteria for promotion. The Librarians have recognized this, and it provides explanation for such high level of their cooperation activities usually in the form of helping one another, getting published, presentation of papers at conferences and so on.

The next greatest of all the contextual performance of the librarians is initiative on the job. This is not surprising because it is one of the criteria for the promotion of librarians in the libraries studied. Besides, the new information environment is now complex and characterized by change and uncertainties. The librarians are expected to bring their initiatives to bear upon their job to make their libraries visible and relevant.

The third greatest of all the contextual performance of Librarians is dedication/attention to duty. This result is surprising because it is not clearly one of the criteria for the promotion of librarians. However, because the librarian's job is partly administrative, dedication/attention to duty may seem to be an important criterion.

5.4. Relationship between the Librarians' Demographic Variables and their Task Performance

The relationship between each of the librarians' demographic variables and task performance was determined using the Spearman's ranked order correlation coefficient extracted from SPSS output data. The strength and the direction of this relationship on each variable including a decision on its significance are presented in Table 4 below.

All of the demographic variables, as shown in Table 4, were found to be significantly related to task performance except for gender and marital status. In view of this, gender (X = 1.34, S = 0.47, r = 0.59, p > .05) and marital status (X = 1.99, S = 0.61, r = 0.083, p > .05) of the respondents are not qualified for entry into the regression model because they were found not to have significant relationships with task performance.

From the above table, age was a significant predictor and had the strongest correlation coefficient (r = 0.466, p< 0.05). While gender was not a significant predictor (r = 0.059, p > 0.05), education (r = 0.391, p < 0.05) and rank or job position(r = 0.490, p < 0.05) were significant predictors. Work experience was also found to correlate with the task performance of librarians(r = 0.414, p < 0.05).

The results, as depicted in the above table, revealed a significant relationship between educational qualification and job performance of employees. This is so because professionalization of librarians has now been established in Nigeria for efficiency and effectiveness. This finding lends support to Rugi and Agih (2008), who found a significant relationship between the educational qualification and job performance of teachers in Baylsa State. According to them, a plausible explanation for this is that a more knowledge and widely trained teacher performs better than less knowledge and less trained teachers.

The above results also showed a significant relationship between experience and job performance of employees. This is probably due to the fact that the more experience an employee has, the more his or her job performance. This is more so because he/she has to put into practice all the experience he/she has acquired over the years. This is in consonance with the findings of Rugi and Agih (2008) that revealed a high relationship between teachers experience and their job performance. They explained that the longer a teacher works in a school, the greater probability that his productivity will be higher. Various research findings have shown that there is a significant relationship between employee characteristics and their performance. The findings of this study also revealed that age, gender, educational level and experience have influence on the performance of employees.

5.5. Relationship between Librarians' Demographic Variables and Contextual Performance.

The strength of the relationship on each of the demographic variables as well as its direction is depicted in Table 5 below. The table also shows the probability value of each correlation coefficient which is compared with the alpha level of 0.05 for the purpose of drawing a conclusion on whether the relationship is significant or not.

The results in Table 5 showed that all the demographic variables were found to be significantly related to contextual performance except for gender and marital status. This means that gender (X= 1.30, SD= 0.56, r = 0.046, p > .05) and marital status (X=1.87, SD = 0.68, r = 0.063, p > .05) of the librarians are not to be included into the regression model, because they were found not to have significant relationships with contextual performance. It is clear from the above table that age (r = 0.347, p < 0.05), educational qualifications (r = 0.294, p < 0.05), job position or rank (r = 0.430. p < 0.05) and work experience (r = 0.316, p < 0.05) are predictors of contextual performance of librarians

The above results showed that except for gender and marital status, all other variables were found to correlate significantly with contextual performance of librarians. This implies that the personal characteristics of librarians consisting of age, education, work experience and position were all significant and positive correlates of job performance. This finding is not surprising because, according to (Arvey and Murphy, 1998), task and contextual performance are not entirely separate and both of them contribute substantially to overall measures of performance. The finding is also expected because the independent variables studied were purely personal factors or characteristics of librarians. The personality characteristics were not studied at all. The result would have been different if personality characteristics or traits were studied. This is because task and contextual performance correlate differently with personality traits.

It is also clear from Table 5 that the relationship between work experience and contextual performance is smaller. This finding is in agreement with those of (Motowidlo, White, Pulakos and Oppler, 1991) who maintained that work experience explained a considerable amount of variation in task performance but the relationship with contextual performance was considerably smaller.

5.6. Hypothesis testing on joint and relative effects of demographic variables on job performance of the librarians

Tables 6-9 as shown below depict the results of the hypotheses on the joint and relative effects of demographic factors or variables on the dimensions of the job performance of librarians. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 probability level using multiple regression analysis.

Table 6 shows that the joint effects of demographic variables on task performance of librarians were significant (F=3.68, P<0.05). In addition, the adjusted [R.sup.2] = 0.564 means that about 56% of the variation on task performance of the librarians was accounted for by the effects of independent variables (age, work experience, education and job level/rank).

The result of the hypothesis testing shows that the joint effects of demographic variables of task performance of librarians were significant. Also the four variables that correlated significantly with task performance were found to contribute as much as 56% to the job performance of librarians while the remaining 44% could be explained by other factors. These findings are in consonance with the previous studies that found that the joint effect of the demographic variables on job performance of employees was significant (Oyewole and Popoola, 2015).

Table 7 shows that the joint effect of demographic variables on contextual performance of librarians were significant (F=3.84, P<0.05). In addition, the adjusted [R.sup.2] = 0.554 means that about 55% of the variation on contextual performance of librarians was accounted for by the effects of independent variables (age, work experience, education and job level/rank).

The result of the hypothesis testing shows that the joint effects of demographic variables on contextual performance of librarians were significant. Also, the four variables that correlated significantly with contextual performance were found to contribute as much as 55% to the job performance of librarians while the remaining 45% could be explained by other factors. These findings are in consonance with those of (Oyewole and Popoola, 2015) who found that the joint effect of the demographic variables on job performance of library personnel was significant.

Table 8 shows the relative effects of demographic variables on task performance of librarians. Age ([beta] = -0.173, P<0.05), years of work experience ([beta] = 0.212, P<0.05), Education ([beta] = .229, P<0.05) and job level/rank ([beta] = 0.125, p< 0.05) were found to be significant determinants of task performance of librarians.

Table 9 shows the relative effects of demographic variables on contextual performance of librarians. Age ([beta] = -0.168, P<0.05), years of work experience ([beta] = 0.204, P<0.05), Education ([beta] = .219, P<0.05) and job level/rank ([beta] = 0.121, p< 0.05) were found to be significant determinants of task performance of librarians.

The results in tables 8 and 9 revealed the demographic variables that were good predictors of the job performance of librarians in both dimensions. The negative predictive values of the age variable in both dimensions showed that as the librarians advanced in age, their job performance declined. Another revelation from these tables is that education has the highest predictive value which means that it makes the most significant contribution to the job performance of librarians than other predictors. Other predictors, as revealed in the tables, include work experience and job level or rank. This result is quite revealing because literature review shows that the relationship between the measures of education and job performance is not largely known (Wise, A. David cited by Hassan and Ogunkoya, 2014) due to the fact that past research has focused primarily on the effects of education on core task performance (Magden, 1990).

6. Conclusion and recommendations

This study contributes to the theory of organizational performance and also to the understanding of the role of demographics in librarians' job performance. Understanding the predictors of job performance of librarians in university libraries in South East Nigeria will enable the library administrators and library managers to formulate and execute good manpower planning that centers on workers' productivity. Effective job performance will enable librarians to provide efficient information services to users.

Based on the findings of this study, any university library administrator desiring to increase the performance of his professional staff should pay closer attention to both their task and contextual roles. Deployment of librarians for their task and extra roles leading to increased job performance should be based on age, educational qualifications, work experience and job ranks. The warning here is that much attention should not be focused only on work experience when assigning extra roles to staff. The reason is that it has the smallest correlation with contextual performance of librarians, which supports similar studies in this area.

Finally, the results of this study suggest that considerations for enhancing librarians' job performance should include such factors like in roles and extra roles of librarians as well as their personal characteristics. Though these factors are subject to future research clarifications, their contributions to the understanding of the complexities of the job performance of professional librarians cannot be over-emphasized.

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cyprian ifeanyi ugwu

cyprian.ugwu@unn.edu.ng

Mercy Ebere Ugwu

Department of Library and Information Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, obettah4plus@yahoo.com

BY

UGWU, CYPRIAN. I.(Ph.D)

Department of Information Science, University of South Africa.

(Email:ugwuci@unisa.ac.za or cyprian.ugwu@unn.edu.ng

And

UGWU, MERCY E.

Department of Library and Information Science, UNN.

(Email:obettah4plus@yahoo.com) Table 1: Frequency Distribution of the Respondents' Demographic factors Variable Category Frequency/ Percentage Age 30 and below 35 (35%) 31-40 40 (40) 41-50 15 (15%) 50 and above 10 (10%) Gender Male 45 (45%) Female 55 (55%) Marital status Single 10 (10%) Married 70 (70%) Divorced 1 (1%) Separated 1 (1%) Widow 7 (7%) Widower 1 (1%) Working experience 10 years or less 25 (25%) 11-20 years 20 (20%) 21-30 years 27 (27%) 31 years and more 28 (28%) Rank or position Assistant Librarian 15 (15%) Librarian 11 10 (10%) Librarian 1 20 (20%) Senior Librarian 30 (30%) Principal Librarian 13 (30%) Deputy Univ. Librarian 7 (7%) University Librarian 5 (5%) Education Bachelor Degree 20 (20%) Postgraduate Diploma 15 (15%) Master Degree 45 (45%) PhD 15 (15%) Others 5 (5%) Table 2: Mean and standard deviation scores of task performance statement S/N Statement V. Low Low High V. High Mean S.D 1. Completing job 10 20 50 20 2.80 0.40 tasks 2. Work quantity 5 10 40 45 3.20 0.39 3. Work quality 12 25 45 18 2.69 0.67 4. Job skills 20 25 35 20 2.55 0.79 5. Job knowledge 10 20 45 25 2.85 0.35 6. Keeping knowledge 10 30 35 25 2.75 0.52 up to-date 7. Working 15 20 45 20 2.70 0.39 accurately and neatly 8. Planning and 10 12 58 20 2.88 0.32 organizing of library services 9. Participation in 30 25 25 20 2.35 1.35 library administration 10. Decision making 25 30 35 10 2.30 1.32 11. Solving problems 20 15 45 20 2.65 0.76 12. Oral and written 10 20 40 30 2.90 0.32 communication 13. Monitoring and 15 20 45 20 2.70 0.57 controlling resources Overall 2.72 0.62 Table 3: Mean and standard deviation scores of contextual performance statements S/N Statement V. Low High V. Mean S.D Low High 1. Persisting with 10 25 35 25 2.65 0.79 enthusiasm and extra effort as necessary to complete own task successfully 2. Initiative on the job 10 30 40 20 2.90 0.39 3. Attention to duty 15 20 35 30 2.80 0.48 4. Resourcefulness in 10 30 35 25 2.75 0.67 accomplishing tasks 5. Industriousness in 19 21 45 15 2.56 0.75 accomplishing tasks 6. Motivation on the job 30 35 20 15 2.20 1.37 7. Dedication to duty 10 25 40 25 2.80 0.35 8. Proactively and 25 35 20 20 2.35 1.32 creativity on the job 9. Cooperating with and 10 15 45 30 2.95 0.40 helping others 10. Politeness in dealing 15 20 40 25 2.75 0.59 with others 11. Effective communication 10 25 45 20 2.75 0.56 on the job 12. Interpersonal relation 12 38 30 20 2.58 0.95 13. Organizational 16 34 35 15 2.49 0.82 commitment Overall 2.69 0.72 Table 4: Summary of test of significant relationship among independent variables and task performance. Variables X SD Task Sig. P performance (r) Gender 1.34 0.47 0.059 0.081 Marital status 1.99 0.61 0.083 0.242 Age 40.00 7.89 0.466 0.026 Educational qualification 3.50 1.30 0.391 0.022 Position/rank 5.67 2.90 0.490 0.018 Work experience 12.64 7.63 0.414 0.010 Task performance 46.2624 8.4587 1.000 Table 5: Summary of test significant relationship among independent variables and contextual performance. Variables X SD Contextual Sig. P performance (r) Gender 1.30 0.56 0.046 0.076 Marital status 1.87 .68 0.063 0.162 Age 34.00 8.72 0.347 0.020 Educational qualification 3.20 1.46 0.294 0.018 Position/rank 5.46 2.99 0.430 0.022 Work experience 9.35 8.53 0.316 0.024 Contextual performance 43.3127 9.3564 1.000 Table 6: Summary of multiple regression analysis of the joint effects of demographic variables on task performance of librarians Model Sum of DF Mean square F Sig squares Regression 11,626.081 5 2,323.216 3.68 0.021 Residual 69,392.408 95 630.855 Total 81,018.489 100 2,954.071 Adj. R = 7648 Adj. [R.sup.2] = .564 Standard Error of Estimate (SEE) = 20.708 Table 7: Summary of multiple regression analysis of joint effects of demographic variables on contextual performance of librarians. Model Sum of DF Mean square F Sig squares Regression 9,523.064 5 1,904.313 3.84 0.032 Residual 54,674.316 95 497.392 Total 81,018.489 100 2,401.705 Adj. R = 7038 Adj. [R.sup.2] = .554 Standard Error of Estimate (SEE) = 20.306 Table 8: Multiple regression analysis of the relative effects of Demographic variables on task performance Variables Unstandardized Standardized T Sig. Regression Regression Co-efficient Co-efficient (constant) 6.642 25.016 -- .266 791 Age -555 .262 -173 -2.119 .036 Work .700 .264 .212 2.651 .009 experience Education .529 .267 .229 2.642 .007 Job level/ 4.450 1.471 .125 3.025 .003 rank Table 9: Relative effects of demographic variables on contextual performance Variables Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Regression Regression Co-efficient Co-efficient (constant) 6.346 25.012 -- .245 799 Age -.532 .246 -.168 -2.017 .039 Work .699 .284 .204 2.456 .012 experience Education .501 .236 .219 2.542 .009 Job level/ 4.352 1.364 .121 2.026 .014 rank