Embracing the multilingual and multicultural assessment context of Canada/Endosser le contexte plurilingue et multiculturel de l'evaluation au Canada.

Cheng, Liying

TESL Canada Journal, established more than 30 years ago in 1984, is a major venue for sharing research and pedagogical ideas about the learning and teaching of official languages; second language teacher education; and the maintenance and development of minority, heritage, or Aboriginal languages among practicing teachers, teacher educators, graduate students, and researchers.

Assessment has consistently been one of the key topics of TESL Canada Journal. The earliest assessment article, Preadmission ESL Testing by Post-Secondary Educational Institutions in Canada by Rosalie J. Banko, Ardiss E. Mackie, and John A. Upshur, was published in 1985. We subsequently saw articles such as Does Language Assessment Facilitate Recent Immigrants' Participation in Canadian Society by Alister Cumming in 1994 and The Use of CLBA Scores in LINC Program Placement Practices in Western Canada by Marian Rossiter and Grazyna Pawlikowska-Smith in 1999. In the 2000s, we witnessed a greater variety of studies on assessment being published in TESL Canada Journal, for example, Using the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) to Benchmark College Programs/Courses and Language Proficiency Tests by Lucy Epp and Mary Stawychny in 2001; Professionalism and High-Stakes Tests: Teachers' Perspectives When Dealing with Educational Change Introduced Through Provincial Exams by Carolyn Turner in 2006; Do Test Formats in Reading Comprehension Affect Second-Language Students' Test Performance Differently? by Ying Zheng, Liying Cheng, and Don A. Klinger in 2007; and An Introspective Study of Arabic and Mandarin-Speakers' Reading Comprehension Strategies by Marilyn Abbott in 2010. The most recent article on the topic is Comparing the Lexical Features of EAP Students' Essays by Prompt and Rating by Maxime Lavallee and Kim McDonough in 2015. This rich collection

of studies demonstrates the importance that assessment plays in teaching and learning within the context of TESL Canada.

There has not, however, been an entire issue in TESL Canada Journal devoted exclusively to assessment issues until this current special issue, "Language Assessment in Canada: Critical Issues and Research Agenda." Before I introduce the contents of this special issue and its contribution to TESL Canada Journal, I'd like to provide some essential background information about the field of language testing and assessment in which these studies are situated.

As a field of language testing and assessment, the first Language Testing Research Colloquium (LTRC) was held at the TESOL Convention in Boston in 1979, which signified that language testing had started to form a distinct, yet interrelated, subfield within applied linguistics and TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). The first LTRC emerged at a time "when John Oller's [1979] research into the nature of language ability was redefining our view of language testing" and when Michael Canale and Merrill Swain (1980) were formulating their seminal work on teaching and testing communicative competence (Bachman & Palmer, 2015).

The official international organization--the International Language Testing Association (ILTA)--was established in 1992 in Vancouver, Canada, more than a decade after the first LTRC. In the intervening years, we have seen an increasing number of journals focused on testing and assessment, including Language Testing, established in 1984; Assessing Writing, 1994; Language Assessment Quarterly, 2004; Papers in Language Testing and Assessment (PLTA), 1992; and Language Testing in Asia, 2011 (the nearest established journal in our field), reflecting the growth of our field and its movement away from a narrow focus on tests and testing to a broader focus on assessment. The phrases language testing and language assessment are both used here; I regard language assessment as an umbrella term that includes language testing. I use language testing and assessment to refer to our field consistently. This shift from language testing to language assessment is in sync with the global trends in education to combine assessment of learning with assessment for learning. As elegantly stated by Caroline Clapham (2000), "the relationship between language testing and the other subdisciplines of applied linguistics" is indeed "the relationship between testing and assessment" (p. 147).

Language assessment has gained in both prominence and importance within Canadian applied linguistics and TESL Canada research, as evidenced by the increasing numbers of dissertations on the subject, as well as papers presented by Canadian graduate students at ILTA's annual LTRC. In their extensive review of doctoral dissertations in Canada, Cheng and Fox (2013) state that there has also been a dramatic increase in job openings for language assessment specialists at the faculty level and in language testing agencies within the broader Canadian and international contexts. Increased interest in issues related to language assessment in Canada has also resulted in the formation of a national association. The Canadian Association of Language Assessment/L'assodation canadienne pour revaluation des langues (CALA/ ACEL) was officially established in 2009 and is playing a professional leadership role in language assessment in Canada and internationally.

In 2015, the executives of this national association--Khaled Barkaoui (York University), Beverly Baker (University of Ottawa), Christine Doe (Mount Saint Vincent University), Heike Neumann (Concordia University), and Liying Cheng (Queen's University) as the Conference Chair-organized the 37th LTRC in Toronto. This was the fourth time an LTRC has been held in Canada (after 1983 at the University of Ottawa, 1992 at the University of British Columbia, and 2005 again in Ottawa).

The theme of LTRC 2015, From Language Testing to Language Assessment: Connecting Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, highlights the symbiotic relationship of teaching, learning, and testing. Symbiosis, as a biology term, refers to the interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both. In other disciplines, the term refers to a mutually beneficial relationship between different people or groups. I use this term to refer to the evolving relationship of language assessment (including testing) and language teaching within the broader field of applied linguistics. The term fits neatly with the development of the field of language testing and assessment in that language testing comes from language teaching as one organism, becomes an independent field of research as two connecting organisms, yet supports language teaching in the long run. In this sense, the relationship is interdependent and mutually beneficial (see more about the journey of LTRC 2015 in Cheng, 2015).

This special issue of TESL Canada Journal, "Language Assessment in Canada: Critical Issues and Research Agenda," not only reflects a symbiotic relationship of teaching, learning, and assessment (testing), but also highlights the multilingual and multicultural assessment context of Canada where assessment (testing) takes place. The articles presented to you in this special issue vary in the critical issues and research agenda raised, yet all these studies reflect the complex language contexts within which learners from multilingual and multicultural backgrounds are situated and teachers work in understanding and supporting their learning. These studies took place at the school, university, language training, or workplace levels.

Within the context of increasing numbers of English language learners (ELL), the Ontario Ministry of Education recently implemented the Steps to English Proficiency (STEP) language assessment framework to build educator capacity for addressing the needs of those learners in K-12 schools. Van Viegen Stille, Jang, and Wagner's study reports on teachers' perceptions of and experiences with the STEP proficiency scales during a three-year pilot implementation and validation study of the initiative. The STEP framework is a set of descriptors-based language proficiency scales, which specifies observable linguistic behaviours from which educators can make inferences about students' English language development. Fung and ElAtia used Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) to identify factors, such as ESL/ELL/EAL status, that would predict students' reading performance in an English language arts exam taken across Canada. They employed the data from the Pan-Canadian Assessment Program (PCAP) along with the accompanying surveys for students and the schools. Their findings showed that predictors such as students' participation in class discussions, language spoken at home, parents' encouragement to read at young age, and the number of individual projects requiring students to work outside of class contributed significantly to the students' reading scores.

Next, both Douglas's and Fox and Cheng's studies involved test-takers whose scores were used to make high-stakes decisions for immigration and citizenship as well as university studies. Douglas examined the relationship between Lexical Frequency Profiling (LFP) measures and rater judgements of test-takers' overall levels of performance in the speaking and writing modules of the Canada English Language Test-CELPIP-General test. In keeping with the trend to elicit multiple stakeholder responses to operational tests as part of test validation, Fox and Cheng's exploratory mixed methods study examined test-taker accounts of a computer-administered test in the high-stakes context of proficiency testing for university admission. This study has implications in relation to construct representation and the interpretive argument of the test and provides useful insights into test-takers' journeys through high-stakes testing to university study in Canada.

Schmitt and Saif's study is another test validation study from a different perspective. This study was conducted as part of a larger investigation of the predictive validity of the Test de Francais Laval-Montreal (TFLM), a high-stakes French language test used for admission and placement purposes for Teacher-Training Programs (TTPs) in major francophone universities in Canada. The study examined the validity of TFLM tasks for measuring language abilities required by tasks common to the Target Language Use domains in which preservice teachers are expected to function.

At the end of this special issue, two Perspectives articles provide valuable pedagogical insights. Holmes's article is set in the context of the major national initiative of the introduction of Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA) into federally funded Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) programs. The author describes the PBLA initiative and outlines the approach that is being used to introduce PBLA into adult ESL programs. This article provides key learning from PBLA and directions for PBLA moving forward. Baker's article proposes a new visual representation of writing to reconceptualize the interrelated elements of writing assessment and reveal new relationships to explore among writing elements. Such awareness can benefit anyone involved in the writing assessment enterprise, from writing assessment scholars to classroom teachers of writing.

With the trend toward globalization, internationalization, and immigration in schools and on university campuses around the world, language assessments (tests) are utilized extensively as powerful decision-making tools. Inferences drawn by decision-makers about students' language abilities, based on the scores from such assessment (tests), result in high-stakes decisions such as university admission, program placement, graduation, and immigration to Canada. Together, the works included in this special issue of TESL Canada Journal enhance our understanding of the complex multilingual and multicultural assessment context of Canada in which learners and their teachers in K-12 schools and in universities, as well as newcomers to Canada, live, study, and work. Successfully evaluating these learners' English or French language abilities through various language tests and through the training of teachers will continue to have a direct impact on millions of them who come to Canada to study and settle, and on Canada--socially, educationally, and economically. All skilled workers and professionals who wish to immigrate to Canada need to demonstrate their English or French language ability via a language test. The short-term impact is evident in changing dynamics in schools, universities, and neighbourhoods across Canada; the long-term impact will be evident in the availability of knowledge workers, professionals, and taxpayers to support the Canadian economy.

The Author

Liying Cheng is Professor and Director of Assessment and Evaluation Group (AEG) at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.

References

Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (2015, December). A short history of LTRC. Retrieved from http:// www.iltaonline.com/index.php/enUS/organization/a-short-history-of-ltrc

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approach to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

Cheng, L. (2015). Symbiosis of language testing and language teaching. Foreign Language Testing and Teaching, 4, 1-18.

Cheng, L., & Fox, J. (2013). Review of doctoral research in language assessment in Canada (20062011). Language Teaching, 46, 518-544. doi:10.1017/S0261444813000244

Clapham, C. (2000). Assessment and testing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 147-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0267190500200093

Oller, J. W. (1979). Language tests at school: A pragmatic approach. London, UK: Longman. Un mot de l'editrice invitee

La Revue TESL du Canada, etablie il y a plus 30 ans en 1984, represente, pour les enseignants en service, les formateurs d'enseignants, les etudiants des cycles superieurs et les chercheurs, un lieu important de partage de resultats de recherche et d'idees en matiere d'enseignement et d'apprentissage des langues officielles; de formation des enseignants de langue seconde; et du maintien et du developpement des langues minoritaires, patrimoniales et autochtones.L'evaluation a regulierement ete un des themes majeurs de la Revue TESL du Canada. Le premier article portant sur l'evaluation, Preadmission ESL Testing by Post-Secondary Educational Institutions in Canada par Rosalie J. Banko, Ardiss E. Mackie et John A. Upshur, a ete publie en 1985. Par la suite, nous avons fait paraitre des articles comme Does Language Assessment Facilitate Recent Immigrants' Participation in Canadian Society par Alister Cumming en 1994 et The Use of CLBA Scores in LINC Program Placement Practices in Western Canada par Marian Rossiter et Grazyna Pawlikowska-Smith en 1999. Pendant les annees 2000, la revue a publie une grande variete d'etudes sur l'evaluation; par exemple, Using the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) to Benchmark College Programs/Courses and Language Proficiency Tests par Lucy Epp et Mary Stawychny en 2001, Professionalism and High-Stakes Tests: Teachers' Perspectives When Dealing with Educational Change Introduced Through Provincial Exams par Carolyn Turner en 2006; Do Test Formats in Reading Comprehension Affect Second-Language Students' Test Performance Differently? par Ying Zheng, Liying Cheng et Don A. Klinger en 2007 et An Introspective Study of Arabic and Mandarin-Speakers' Reading Comprehension Strategies par Marilyn Abbott en 2010. L'article le plus recemment publie a ce sujet est Comparing the Lexical Features of EAP Students' Essays by Prompt and Rating par Maxime Lavallee et Kim McDonough en 2015. La richesse de cette collection d'etudes demontre l'importance du role que joue l'evaluation dans l'enseignement et l'apprentissage de l'anglais langue seconde au Canada.

Avant aujourd'hui par contre, il n'y a pas eu de numero de la Revue TESL du Canada dedie entierement a l'evaluation. Par la presentation d'informations essentielles, je vais brosser un portrait du domaine de l'evaluation des competences linguistiques de sorte a fournir le contexte dans lequel se situent les etudes evoquees dans ce numero special, Language Assessment in Canada: Critical Issues and Research Agenda.

Le premier colloque portant sur l'evaluation des competences linguistiques (Language Testing Research Colloquium--LTRC) s'est deroule pendant le congres de TESOL a Boston en 1979, ce qui indique que l'evaluation des competences linguistiques avait commence a former un sous-domaine distinct, mais lie, au sein de la linguistique appliquee et de TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). Le premier LTRC a eu lieu a une epoque << oU la recherche de John Oller [1979] sur la nature des competences linguistiques redefinissait notre vision de l'evaluation de la langue >> et oU Michael Canale et Merrill Swain (1980) etaient en train d'elaborer leur travail fondateur sur l'enseignement et l'evaluation des competences communicatives (Bachman & Palmer, n.d.).

L'organisme international officiel, le International Language Testing Association, ILTA (Association internationale de l'evaluation des competences linguistiques) a ete etabli en 1992 a Vancouver, au Canada, plus de 10 ans apres le premier LTRC. Depuis, nous avons vu la creation de plus en plus de revues portant sur l'evaluation, y compris Language Testing, etablie en 1984; Assessing Writing, 1994; Language Assessment Quarterly, 2004; Papers in Language Testing and Assessment (PLTA), 1992; et Language Testing in Asia, 2011 (la revue connue la plus reliee a notre domaine). Ces publications refletent la croissance de notre domaine et son evolution d'un centre d'interet etroit sur les tests vers une vision elargie de l'evaluation. Les deux expressions, tests linguistiques et l'evaluation des competences linguistiques, sont employees ici; je considere evaluation des competences linguistiques comme terme generique qui inclut l'evaluation des competences linguistiques. La transition de tests linguistiques vers l'evaluation des competences linguistiques reflete les tendances mondiales en education qui visent l'association de l'evaluation de l'apprentissage a l'evaluation au service de l'apprentissage. Comme Caroline Clapham (2000) l'a si bien dit: << le rapport entre les tests linguistiques et les autres sous disciplines de la linguistique appliquee >> est, effectivement, << le rapport entre les tests et l'evaluation >> (p. 147).

Au Canada, l'evaluation des competences linguistiques a pris de l'importance dans le domaine de la linguistique appliquee ainsi que dans la recherche TESL; le nombre croissant de theses qui portent sur ces sujets en temoigne, tout autant que les articles que presentent les etudiants canadiens aux cycles superieurs lors du LTRC de l'ILTA. Apres un examen approfondi des theses de doctorat au Canada, Cheng and Fox (2013) ont trouve une augmentation spectaculaire des debouches pour les specialistes en evaluation des competences linguistiques dans les facultes et les organismes d'evaluation linguistique au Canada et a l'etranger. Un interet accru pour des questions liees a l'evaluation linguistique au Canada a entraine la formation d'une association nationale. The Canadian Association of Language Assessment/L'association canadienne pour l'e'valuation des langues (CALA/ACEL) a ete etablie officiellement en 2009 et joue un role professionnel de chef de file dans l'evaluation des competences linguistiques au Canada et sur le plan international.

En 2015, les cadres de cette association nationale--Khaled Barkaoui (Universite York), Beverly Baker (Universite d'Ottawa), Christine Doe (Universite Mount Saint Vincent), Heike Neumann (Universite Concordia) et Liying Cheng (Universite Queen's) comme presidente de la conference--ont organise le 37e LTRC a Toronto. Il s'agissait de la quatrieme fois qu'un LTRC avait lieu au Canada (en 1983 a l'Universite d'Ottawa, 1992 a l'Universite de la Colombie-Britannique et de nouveau a Ottawa en 2005).

Le theme de LTRC 2015, From Language Testing to Language Assessment: Connecting Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (Des tests linguistiques a l'evaluation des competences linguistiques: lier l'enseignement, l'apprentissage et l'evaluation), met l'accent sur le rapport symbiotique entre l'enseignement, l'apprentissage et l'evaluation. La symbiose, en biologie, fait reference a l'interaction entre deux organismes differents qui vivent en etroite association physique, typiquement au profit des deux. Dans d'autres disciplines, la symbiose represente une relation mutuellement benefique entre des peuples ou des groupes. Quand j'emploie ce terme, c' est pour evoquer le rapport en evolution de l'evaluation des competences linguistiques (y compris les tests) et l'enseignement des langues dans le domaine de la linguistique appliquee. Le terme cadre bien avec le developpement du domaine des tests et de l'evaluation dans le sens que les tests linguistiques decoulent de l'enseignement des langues comme un organisme, devient ensuite un domaine de recherche independant qui lie deux organismes et appuie l'enseignement des langues a long terme. Dans ce sens, le rapport est interdependant et mutuellement benefique (consulter Cheng 2015 pour en apprendre davantage sur LTRC 2015).

Ce numero special de la Revue TESL du Canada << L'evaluation des competences linguistiques au Canada: Enjeux critiques et programme de recherche >> reflete la relation symbiotique entre l'enseignement, l'apprentissage et l'evaluation mais, en plus, il rehausse le contexte plurilingue et multiculturelle canadien oU l'evaluation a lieu. Si les articles presentes dans ce numero special portent sur divers enjeux et projets de recherche, ils refletent tous les contextes langagiers complexes dans lesquels les apprenants d'origines plurilingues et multiculturelles se situent et les enseignants travaillent pour comprendre et appuyer leur apprentissage. Les etudes en question ont eu lieu dans des lieux scolaires, universitaires et professionnels.

Compte tenu du nombre croissant d'eleves apprenants l'anglais (EAA), le Ministere de l'Education de l'Ontario a mis sur pied recemment un cadre d'evaluation des competences linguistiques (Steps to English Proficiency--STEP) pour accroitre la capacite des enseignants a repondre aux besoins de ces apprenants dans les ecoles K-12. L'etude de Van Viegen Stille, Jang et Wagner fait etat des perceptions et des experiences des enseignants relatives aux echelles de competences STEP pendant les trois annees de la phase de mise en oeuvre initiale et d'etude de la validite de l'initiative. Le cadre STEP est un ensemble d'echelles de competences linguistiques basees sur des descripteurs qui decrivent des comportements linguistiques a partir desquels les enseignants peuvent faire des inferences quant au developpement des eleves en anglais. Fung et ElAtia ont employe la modelisation lineaire hierarchique pour identifier les facteurs, comme le statut ALS/ELL/ALA, qui prediraient les acquis en lecture d'eleves lors d'un examen d'anglais administre partout au Canada. Ils ont employe des donnees du Programme pancanadien d'evaluation (PPCE), y compris les sondages connexes pour les eleves et les ecoles. Leurs resultats indiquent que les predicteurs tels la participation des eleves aux discussions en classe, la langue parlee a la maison, la mesure dans laquelle les parents encouragent leurs enfants a lire des un jeune age et le nombre de projets individuels exigeant du travail a l'exterieur de la salle de classe. contribuaient de facon significative aux resultats des eleves en lecture.

Ensuite, les etudes de Douglas et de Fox et Cheng ont implique des participants dont les resultats aux epreuves ont servi dans la prise de decisions cles quant a l'immigration et a la citoyennete, et aux etudes universitaires. Douglas a examine le rapport entre les mesures de profilage de la frequence lexicale et les evaluations de la performance globale des eleves aux modules de parole et de redaction du Programme canadien d'evaluation du niveau de competence linguistique en anglais.

Conformement a la tendance de provoquer, aupres des parties prenantes, des reponses multiples aux tests operationnels de sorte a valider ceux-ci, Fox et Cheng, dans leur etude exploratoire a methodes mixtes, se sont penches sur les recits de candidats a un test de competence a enjeux eleves (l'entree a l'universite) et gere par ordinateur. Cette etude a des repercussions relatives a la representation de concepts et a l'interpretation du test, d'une part, et aux parcours de candidats aux tests a enjeux eleves impliquant l'admission aux universites canadiennes, d'autre part.

L'etude de Schmitt et Saif est egalement une etude de validation des tests, d'une autre perspective. Cette etude a ete entreprise dans le contexte d'une plus grande enquete sur la validite predictive du Test de Francais Laval-Montreal (TFLM), un test de langue francaise a enjeux eleves qui joue un role dans l'admission et le placement dans les programmes de formation des enseignants dans d'importantes universites francophones au Canada. L'etude a porte sur la validite des taches du TFLM dans l'evaluation des competences linguistiques exigees par les taches communes aux domaines de la langue cible dans lesquels les enseignants en formation sont senses fonctionner.

Ce numero special presente, dans la section Perspectives, deux articles qui offrent des apercus pedagogiques importants. L'article de Holmes se situe dans le contexte de l'initiative nationale majeure qu'est l'evaluation linguistique basee sur le portefeuille (Portfolio-Based Language Assessment--PBLA) dans les programmes subventionnes par le gouvernement federal des Cours de langue pour les immigrants au Canada (CLIC). L'auteure decrit l'intiative du PBLA et dresse les grandes lignes de l'approche employee pour l'integrer aux programmes d'ALS pour adultes. Cet article fournit des informations cles sur l'initiative et sur son avenir. L'article de Baker propose une nouvelle representation visuelle de l'ecriture visant la reconceptualisation des elements interrelies de l'evaluation de l'ecrit et l'exposition de nouveaux rapports entre les composantes de l'ecriture. Toutes les personnes impliquees dans l'evaluation de l'ecrit pourraien profiter des connaissances qu'on y expose, qu'elles soient des professeurs en evaluation ou des enseignants de l'ecriture.

Devant les phenomenes de la mondialisation, de l'internationalisation et de l'immigration dans les ecoles et les universites partout sur la planete, les tests linguistiques sont largement employes comme outils puissants de prise de decisions. Les decideurs tirent des conclusions sur les capacites langagieres des etudiants a partir des resultats de ces tests, prenant des decisions aux enjeux enormes lies, par exemple, a l'entree a l'universite, au placement dans un programme, a l'obtention d'un diplome et a l'immigration au Canada. Dans leur ensemble, les articles dans ce numero special de la Revue TESL Canada augmentent nos connaissances du contexte plurilingue et multiculturel d'evaluation au Canada, milieu dans lequel vivent, etudient et travaillent les etudiants et leurs enseignants dans les ecoles et les universites, ainsi que les nouveaux arrivants au Canada. L'evaluation efficace des competences linguistiques en anglais ou en francais de ces apprenants par divers tests de langue et par la formation des enseignants, continuera a avoir un impact direct sur les millions de personnes qui viennent au Canada pour etudier et s'y installer. L'effet se fera sentir a l'echelle du pays, sur les plans social, educatif et economique. Tous les travailleurs qualifies et les professionnels desirant immigrer au Canada doivent faire preuve de leurs competences en anglais ou en francais et ce, par l'intermediaire d'un test langagier. L'impact a court terme se manifeste dans la dynamique changeante des ecoles, des universites et des quartiers partout au Canada; l'impact a long terme se fera sentir dans la disponibilite des travailleurs du savoir, des professionnels et des contribuables qui appuient l'economie canadienne.

L'auteure

Liying Cheng est Professeure et directrice du groupe d'evaluation (Assessment and Evaluation Group, AEG) a l'Universite Queen's a Kingston, en Ontario.

References

Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (n. d.). A short history of LTRC. Extrait de http://www.iltaonline.com/ index.php/enUS/organization/a-short-history-of-ltrc

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approach to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

Cheng, L. (2015). Symbiosis of language testing and language teaching. Foreign Language Testing and Teaching, 4, 1-18.

Cheng, L., & Fox, J. (2013). Review of doctoral research in language assessment in Canada. Language Teaching, 46, 518-544. doi:10.1017/S0261444813000244

Clapham, C. (2000). Assessment and testing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 147-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0267190500200093

Oller, J. W. (1979). Language tests at school: A pragmatic approach. London, UK: Longman.