Employees' knowledge of office politics: demographic differences.

Green, Catherine G. ; Chaney, Lillian H.

ABSTRACT

Office politics, which actually is a game, goes on in most working environments. Employees need to learn rules of politics so that in the workplace they can reap the rewards to which they are entitled. To determine demographic differences in employees' knowledge of the rules of office politics, a survey that included ten statements related to office politics and that requested four types of demographic information was administered to 264 employees. ANOVA results revealed significant differences (<.05) between employees' responses and three of the four demographic factors.

INTRODUCTION

Office politics involves the strategies people in various types of organizations use to gain a career advantage (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998). Office politics also involves understanding how things get accomplished (Cole, 1999). Getting things done will necessitate building relationships with the people with whom one works since careers are made or damaged on the basis of relationships (Frankel, 2004).

Some political maneuvering goes on in most work environments, especially in those where influence and monetary gain are important (Fisher, 2002). This political maneuvering, usually referred to as office politics, is actually a game; and employees who do not play the game pay the price (Hawley, 2001; Reed, 1999). The game of office politics has specific rules and boundaries (Frankel, 2004). While these rules will vary with the company, some rules are invariant; they include behaving ethically and treating people fairly rather than behaving in a deceitful, unethical manner. The game of office politics is competitive, but it does not include playing unfairly to assure winning at another person's expense (Cole, 1999). Dobson and Dobson (2001) agree that office politics and behaving ethically are not mutually exclusive; they believe that it is possible for principled persons to help create an office environment that "rewards and supports good behavior rather than political sneakiness" (p. xii).

Another rule of office politics is that of being loyal to and showing support for the supervisor. DuBrin (1990) points out that one's accomplishments are often a team effort and that such accomplishments should be shared with one's supervisor. Correcting or outshining one's supervisor, especially when others are present, could result in retaliation later on. Making one's supervisor look good, on the other hand, could result in a move up the corporate ladder as the supervisor moves up (Hawley, 2001). Employees with strong work skills who do not show support for their supervisors are less likely to succeed than are employees (even those with meager work skills) who support their supervisors (Bragg, 2004; Fisher, 2002).

Employees who have issues with some of the concepts of office politics need to understand that favoritism exists in every firm and that their ability or inability to use office politics effectively can advance or impede their careers (Beagrie, 2004). In fact, employees who are inept at office politics may be perceived as people who are not team players and not good candidates for promotion; they may also be viewed as persons who are untrustworthy and lack social skills and common sense ("FastCompany's Five Rules," 2003). Decisions concerning raises and promotions are not, after all, based entirely on merit; they may be a way of paying back favors or rewarding an employee for making a favorable impression on prospective clients when entertaining them (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Self-promotion, honesty and truth telling, flattery, gossip, favors and hidden motives, attire and grooming, and business socializing and etiquette were found to be the primary aspects of office politics addressed in the literature.

Office politics involves self-promotion; perceptive employees know that they must make sure that their efforts and accomplishments are recognized (Kuzmitz, Sussman, Adams, & Raho, 2002). Tooting one's own horn, when done in a low-key manner, is highly recommended especially when trying to convince a supervisor that a raise or promotion is deserved. Tooting one's horn too loudly, however, may result in being called a braggart, which may fail to impress influential people. The best advice for self-promotion is to document all accomplishments; this will add strength when making a case for promotions and salary increases (DuBrin, 1990; Hawley, 2001). Bixler and Dugan (2001) maintain that self-promotion should include such basics as keeping commitments, sending letters of appreciation and congratulations, being accessible, and having business cards readily available when meeting others. Watson (1999), too, recommends self-promotion. He warns, however, that such self-promotion should be done cautiously, taking into account what others think about it. Perhaps sharing rewards and expressing appreciation to subordinates for their work would be advisable so that they feel they contributed to the supervisor's success.

In addition to personal attributes, office decor, including a display of awards and certificates of achievement can be used for self-promotion. Displays and office furnishings, however, should be business related; pictures of a child's artwork or lamps and other accessories that belong in one's home are inappropriate for the office. According to Bixler and Dugan (2001), one's office decor should convey a message that is congruent with the person's business image and with the manner in which he or she wishes to be perceived.

Part of playing the game of office politics is making decisions on the extent to which one feels compelled to tell the truth in all situations. Honesty and truth telling, according to Cole (1999), should be a way of life in the workplace; however, being ruthlessly honest to the extent of trampling on other people's feelings is not recommended. DeLuca (1999) points out that telling an employee in the presence of others that his job will be eliminated by the end of the year is demoralizing and serves no useful purpose. In some cases, employees may find that total honesty is less important than telling supervisors what they want to hear. For example, when asked how the sales report is progressing, employees may assure the supervisor that everything is on schedule even when that is not the case because a positive report is what the supervisor wants to hear. In short, what a person tells should be truthful; however, gauging how much to tell requires skill; and one's words must be chosen carefully and politically (Hawley, 2001).

Compliments, defined as giving sincere praise in recognition of the efforts and accomplishments of others, are always appreciated (Mitchell, 1998). Flattery, defined as excessive or insincere praise, has not traditionally been viewed in a positive manner. When it comes to the office politics game, however, Rozakis and Rozakis (1998) maintain that "flattery will get you everywhere--if it's used properly" (p. 171). They further state that flattery is effective in influencing others and "creates a more pleasant office environment for everyone" (p. 171). One of the most effective ways of using flattery is perhaps giving a compliment on another person's behalf, which is then passed on. For example, an employee mentions to a colleague that he is impressed with the supervisor's business acumen; the colleague then conveys the compliment to the supervisor. Thus a person's ulterior motive is less obvious, and the compliment is perceived as more sincere.

While office gossip in years past has not been considered in a positive light, it is currently being taken more seriously. According to DuBrin (1990), gossip is definitely "a vehicle for building peer relationships" (p. 96). Further, it is seen as a socializing force which improves employee morale. People who spread gossip must remember, however, that it is unwise to pass along negative information about someone unless it is factual and would soon be public knowledge (DuBrin, 1990). Employees who gossip, according to Beagrie (2004), may have hidden agendas so office colleagues should take such information at face value. The desire to gossip is often fueled by the human need to fit into a group. Rather than fitting in, however, employees may find themselves ostracized when they spread gossip that maligns another person (Dobson & Dobson, 2001).

Gossip may be personal or professional. Responses to personal gossip and back-stabbing should be noncommittal and limited to slow nods or short verbal responses, such as "oh, really!" Silence is an even better response; such gossip should not, of course, be repeated (Bragg, 2004; James, 2003; Reed, 1999). While personal gossip should not be given attention, professional gossip should be given attention since it is a technique for become skilled in office politics and is approximately 80 percent accurate. The most valuable professional gossip includes job changes, while the least valuable gossip is related to office romances or other personal information such as extramarital affairs (DuBrin, 1990). Sharing professional gossip with one's supervisor is simply part of office politics (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1999). Employees should keep in mind that information should be shared with one's supervisor before one's colleagues. The supervisor should never be the second person to know (Hawley, 2001).

When it comes to favors in the office, Cole (1999) maintains that they are "the absolute bottom line of what politics is all about" (p. 484). DuBrin (1990) states that "quid pro quo arrangements with others in the workplace are a standard way of getting things accomplished" (p. 93). DuBrin (1990) adds that exchanging favors is especially effective when favors are done with no expectation of receiving anything in return. Such generosity is usually remembered later when promotion decisions are made. Holden (2003) also emphasizes the importance of doing favors, such as giving a job referral and lending professional materials, to building successful work relationships. Although the person may not be in a position to return the favor immediately, he or she may be able to repay the favor at a later time. Perhaps the saying, "What goes around, comes around" applies when doing favors for those who are not in a position to return the favor.

Requests for favors must be made wisely and should never be used to create win-lose circumstances in which the person requesting the favor wins and the person granting the favor loses. Having a well-developed relationship with the person who is being asked for a favor is important. Further, the person requesting a favor should remember that once another person has done the favor, he or she is owed a favor in return (Cole, 1999; "FastCompany's Five Rules," 2003).

Sometimes when a person does a favor for someone, the recipient of the favor may question the other person's motives. The best advice is to remain friendly toward the person until a determination can be made regarding a hidden agenda. Holden (2003) warns against hidden agendas when dealing with others. He recommends being open in one's dealings with other people; otherwise, people may sense a lack of complete honesty and may be reluctant to trust others. Regardless of the hidden motives of the person granting the favor, doing favors is implicit in the workplace politics game. When people go out of their way to do favors for other people, they are making a deposit in the "favor bank" that they can cash in later when the need arises (Frankel, 2004; Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998). In summary, asking for favors should be done wisely; and spending one's favor account should also be done wisely (Cole, 1999).

Clothing is a powerful communicator and makes a difference in the way individuals are perceived (Cole, 1999). One connection people often make is between a person's manner of dress and performance: "sloppy dress, sloppy mind, sloppy work" (Holden, 1998, p. 70). The implication is that someone who is considering a large investment in an organization would question the advisability of doing so when dealing with someone wearing frayed jeans and sandals (Holden, 1998, 2003).

Dressing appropriately for the job enhances one's corporate image and lends credibility to one's ideas and accomplishments. Clothing should be selected that reflects the company culture and that is appropriate to the stage in one's career (DuBrin, 1990). Wearing shoes with run-down heels and carrying a worn-out attache case is not recommended for those aspiring to supervisory positions (DuBrin, 1999). If the corporate culture is casual, employees should remember that it is wise to invest in high-quality casual clothing with high-quality accessories as well (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998). According to Dobson and Dobson (2001), employees can make themselves more promotable by following the dress standards set by their organizational leaders. While some persons would consider conforming to the company's dress codes a form of dishonesty, others know that doing so is simply good office politics. Employees who follow the firm's dress standards will send the message that they are aware of the importance of appropriate attire to the company's image and that they wish to confirm to the standards of the corporate culture. Employees on the way up should, however, avoid dressing better than their supervisors (DeLuca, 1999).

Grooming is an important aspect of one's appearance. People who are well groomed, in addition to being well dressed, convey the message that they pay attention to detail. Good grooming supports an expensive outfit; a lack of good grooming destroys the overall image (Holden, 1998). Authors of books on office politics agree with DuBrin (1990) that "Looking good when accomplishing something is as important as the accomplishment itself" (p. 23).

The people with whom one socializes in the organization can affect career advancement. Networking with people during business meals can supplement relationships (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998). Hawley (2001) advises employees to accept all invitations from those of higher rank. In addition, reciprocating invitations is important. One should remember, however, not to bring up business at social events as this would be considered pushy (DeLuca, 1999).

Business lunches provide employees with opportunities for showing their good manners and can, therefore, afford some political edge in the future. Selecting the right restaurant and the right table and ordering appropriate food and beverages are all aspects of the power lunch that contribute to making a favorable impression. Employees should be aware that in some companies, however, going out for lunch regularly is viewed less impressively than eating at one's desk. As DuBrin (1990) points out, to serious-minded executives in such companies, the nonverbal message being conveyed is that the employee is too busy to "engage in the frivolity of eating lunch out" (p. 81). Using good table manners during business meals can send positive nonverbal messages about a person. Poor table manners, on the other hand, call attention to the person in a negative way. Poor table manners give the impression of carelessness about details, and employees know that taking care of details is an important part of business (Cole, 1999). Important reminders when dining out include avoiding foods that are difficult to eat neatly, eating lightly, ordering coffee only after the meal, permitting the host to pay for the meal, and waiting to discuss business until the end of the meal (DuBrin, 1990).

In addition to dining etiquette, displaying good manners in other situations can project a positive image of oneself and the organization (DuBrin, 1990). Remembering names is important when attending corporate mingling events (Rozakis & Rozakis, 1998). People who are successful at the office politics game know how important it is to remember the names of colleagues and clients. Standing when visitors who come by infrequently arrive in the office is still considered good manners. In addition, making appointments with persons of higher rank, rather than dropping in unannounced, is the mark of a well-mannered person. Being diplomatic, being sensitive to other people's feelings, and using bias-free language are just as important for people with career aspirations as are dressing appropriately and using proper table manners (DuBrin, 1990). To play the office politics game successfully, one should know and use both company and social etiquette (Hawley, 2001).

RESEARCH PURPOSE AND SURVEY PROCEDURES

The purpose of this research was to determine the demographic differences in employees' knowledge of office politics. A survey was developed which included ten statements related to office politics. These statements were based on self-assessment exercises developed by DuBrin (1990) and Rozakis and Rozakis (1998). The 264 respondents consisted of a convenience sample of employees from selected companies in the Mid-South area, primarily employees from business and education. The sample was nonrandom and purposive, which is considered appropriate in situations in which a larger population cannot be easily accessed (Babbie, 1990). Employees surveyed were asked to indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement with each of the statements provided using a 5-point scale with 5 representing Agree and 1 representing Disagree. Demographic information on gender, age, classification of organization, and position in organization was also requested. The .05 level was used to determine statistically significant differences between employees' responses and demographic factors.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

As shown in Table 1, slightly over half (51.9%) of respondents were female, 38.6% were under 25, 68.6% were classified as working in business organizations, and 27.7% classified themselves as manager/supervisor.

Employees were asked to indicate the extent to which they participated in office politics using a 5-point scale with 5 representing Always and 1 representing Never. As shown in Table 2, the largest percentage (33.7%) indicated that they sometimes participated in office politics; only 13.3% said they never participated.

Statistical analysis was run using SPSS, Version 12. Mean responses and standard deviations were calculated. As shown in Table 3, the statement with which the largest number of employees agreed was Dressing appropriately for the job is important since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. The statement with which most employees disagreed was Helping someone who cannot help you in return is a waste of time. (Both responses are in agreement with office politics mavens.) The statement with which employees were in greatest agreement with office politics' authors was related to Always telling the supervisor the truth rather than what he or she wants to hear. Supervisors typically want a positive response, especially when asking about the status of a project. The determination of whether statements were correct or incorrect was based on books on office politics by authors Dobson and Dobson (2001), DuBrin (1990), Holden (1998, 2003), and Rozakis and Rozakis (1998).

Employees' mean responses were in agreement with selected office politics authors on questions related to the importance of appropriate attire, the necessity of playing the office politics game, the importance of practicing self-promotion, the importance of using correct table manners, the correct behavior when questioning someone's hidden motives, and the advisability of helping someone who cannot return the favor. Employees' mean responses were not in agreement with authors of office politics books on statements related to truth telling, using flattery, doing favors for one's supervisor, and sharing office gossip with one's supervisor.

ANOVAs were conducted to examine the differences between mean responses and demographic factors. As shown in Table 4, ANOVA results revealed significant differences (<.05) between employees' responses and three of the four demographic factors: two factors varied significantly by age, one by classification of organization, and two by position in the organization. None varied significantly by gender.

Always tell your supervisor the truth rather than what he or she wants to hear showed significance by age group: employees under 25 years of age (mean of 3.59) vs. the 40 or above group (mean of 4.17) and between the Under 25 group (mean of 3.59) vs. the 25-39 age group (mean of 4.07); thus (since office politics mavens disagreed with the statement) younger respondents were more in agreement with the experts than older respondents. Significance was also indicated between Administrative Support (mean of 4.23) and Customer Service (mean of 3.47) and between Manager/Supervisor (mean of 4.08) and Customer Service (mean of 3.47) in the category of position within the organization. Thus, employees in Customer Service were more in agreement with authors of office politics books than employees in Administrative Support and those in Manager/Supervisor positions.

Think of doing favors for your supervisor as an investment that you can cash in when the need arises showed significance by age. Those under 25 years of age showed greater agreement with the statement (mean of 3.20) than those 40 or above (mean of 2.63). Thus, younger employees agreed with office politics mavens more than older employees. Practicing self-promotion is simply good office politics; make sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments was significant for Classification of Organization. Those in Business (mean of 3.56) showed greater agreement with the statement than those who were Self-employed (mean of 2.59); in addition, employees in Education (mean of 3.70) showed greater agreement with the statement than those who were Self-employed (mean of 2.59). Using flattery to get in a supervisor's good graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment showed significance for position in the organization; however, while this behavior showed significance, Scheffe's post-hoc analysis revealed that no two groups differed significantly at the .05 level.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In summary, areas of office politics with which employees were most knowledgeable related to dressing appropriately; employees were less knowledgeable about truth telling and gossip. When responses were compared to demographic factors, younger respondents in Customer Service positions in business and education were more in agreement with authors of office politics books than were older respondents in Administrative Support and Managerial/Supervisory positions who were self-employed.

While some individuals are comfortable with the game of office politics, others are unwilling to participate in it. Individuals who are uncomfortable with office politics must realize that a certain amount of "office politicking" is necessary for them to receive promotions and get along with supervisors, co-workers, and clients (DuBrin, 1990). In addition to the topics addressed in the survey, Bragg (2004) suggests that winning at the game of office politics includes getting along with everyone, exhibiting teamsmanship, avoiding whining and complaining, being seen, making sure that the boss succeeds, showing loyalty, demonstrating good work skills, being courteous and polite, and making sure that others succeed.

To reap the rewards to which they are entitled, employees would be wise to recognize that working hard and performing well on the job may not be enough to gain career advancement. Playing the office politics game, especially in some organizations, could mean the difference between career stagnation and advancement.

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Catherine G. Green, The University of Memphis Lillian H. Chaney, The University of Memphis Table 1: Demographics of Respondents Demographics Number of Valid Respondents Percent Gender: Female 137 51.9% Male 127 48.1% Total 264 100.0% Age: Under 25 102 38.6% 25-39 75 28.4% 40 or above 87 33.0% Total 264 100.0% Classification of 181 68.6% Organization: Business Education 37 14.0% Self-Employed 17 6.4% Other: (Heathcare, 29 11.0% Government) Total 264 100.0% Position in Organization: 39 14.8% Administrative support Customer service 60 22.7% Manager/supervisor 73 27.7% Professional/technical 54 20.5% Other (Teachers, 38 14.4% Salespersons) Total 264 100.0% Table 2: Employees' Participation in Office Politics Extent of Number of Valid Participation Respondents Percent Always 23 8.7% Frequently 64 24.2% Sometimes 89 33.7% Rarely 53 20.1% Never 35 13.3% Total 264 100.0% Table 3: Employees' Knowledge of Office Politics: Mean Responses Statement Expected Mean * S.D. Response Dressing appropriately for the Agree 4.36 .99 job is important since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. Always tell your supervisor the Disagree 3.93 1.12 truth rather than what he or she wants to hear. Smart employees know that it is Agree 3.61 1.24 sometimes necessary to play the game of office politics even if they do not approve of the game being played. Practicing self-promotion is Agree 3.51 1.15 simply good office politics; make sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments. Using flattery to get in a Agree 2.9 1.25 supervisor's good graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment. Think of doing favors for your Agree 2.89 1.25 supervisor as an investment that you can cash in when the need arises. Using correct table manners when Disagree 2.43 1.56 dining with supervisors and clients plays no role in office politics. When trying to determine another Disagree 2.31 1.19 person's hidden motives, it is best to avoid being friendly until you can determine the hidden agenda. Tell your supervisor the office gossip, Agree 1.96 1.16 even when you are not sure it is true. Helping someone who cannot help you Disagree 1.81 1.05 in return is a waste of time. * Based on a five-point scale with 5 representing Strongly Agree and 1 representing Strongly Disagree. Table 4: ANOVA Results: Demographic Factors and Statements Gender Statement F P- value Smart employees know that it is sometimes .258 .612 necessary to play the game of office politics even if they do not approve of the game being played. Tell your supervisor the office gossip, even 2.987 .085 when you are not sure it is true. Helping someone who cannot help you in return 1.315 .253 is a waste of time. Practicing self-promotion is simply good office .019 .890 politics; be sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments. Always tell your supervisor the truth rather .437 .509 than what he or she wants to hear. Think of doing favors for your supervisor as an .292 .589 investment that you can cash in when the need arises. When trying to determine another person's .257 .613 hidden motives, it is best to avoid being friendly until you can determine the hidden agenda. Using flattery to get in a supervisor's good 1.779 .172 graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment. Dressing appropriately for the job is important 1.876 .172 since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. Using correct table manners when dining with .002 .963 supervisors and clients plays no role in office politics. Age Statement F P- value Smart employees know that it is sometimes .526 .592 necessary to play the game of office politics even if they do not approve of the game being played. Tell your supervisor the office gossip, even 2.400 .093 when you are not sure it is true. Helping someone who cannot help you in return .451 .638 is a waste of time. Practicing self-promotion is simply good office 1.822 .164 politics; be sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments. Always tell your supervisor the truth rather 7.554 .001 * than what he or she wants to hear. Think of doing favors for your supervisor as an 5.240 .006 * investment that you can cash in when the need arises. When trying to determine another person's .161 .851 hidden motives, it is best to avoid being friendly until you can determine the hidden agenda. Using flattery to get in a supervisor's good 2.420 .091 graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment. Dressing appropriately for the job is important 2.892 .057 since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. Using correct table manners when dining with .575 .563 supervisors and clients plays no role in office politics. Class. Of Organization Statement F P- value Smart employees know that it is sometimes .884 .450 necessary to play the game of office politics even if they do not approve of the game being played. Tell your supervisor the office gossip, even .230 .085 when you are not sure it is true. Helping someone who cannot help you in return .487 .692 is a waste of time. Practicing self-promotion is simply good office 4.282 .006 * politics; be sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments. Always tell your supervisor the truth rather .672 .570 than what he or she wants to hear. Think of doing favors for your supervisor as an .578 .630 investment that you can cash in when the need arises. When trying to determine another person's .295 .829 hidden motives, it is best to avoid being friendly until you can determine the hidden agenda. Using flattery to get in a supervisor's good .005 .999 graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment. Dressing appropriately for the job is important 1.923 .126 since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. Using correct table manners when dining with .652 .582 supervisors and clients plays no role in office politics. Position in Organization Statement F P- value Smart employees know that it is sometimes 1.126 .344 necessary to play the game of office politics even if they do not approve of the game being played. Tell your supervisor the office gossip, even .349 .845 when you are not sure it is true. Helping someone who cannot help you in return .598 .664 is a waste of time. Practicing self-promotion is simply good office .443 .778 politics; be sure your supervisor knows of your accomplishments. Always tell your supervisor the truth rather 3.765 .005 * than what he or she wants to hear. Think of doing favors for your supervisor as an 2.005 .094 investment that you can cash in when the need arises. When trying to determine another person's 1.080 .367 hidden motives, it is best to avoid being friendly until you can determine the hidden agenda. Using flattery to get in a supervisor's good 2.539 .040 * graces is recommended as flattery when used properly creates a pleasant work environment. Dressing appropriately for the job is important 2.346 .055 since appropriate attire lends credibility to your ideas and accomplishments. Using correct table manners when dining with 1.996 .095 supervisors and clients plays no role in office politics. * Significant at the .05 level