Sowing seeds for development: Cyril Jackson's attempts to establish relevant schooling in a rural setting in Western Australia, 1896-1903.

Godfrey, Joanne I.F.

Introduction

Cyril Jackson (later Sir) became Inspector-General of Schools for Western Australia in late 1896. By the time he left to take up the position of Chief Inspector of Elementary Schools in England and Wales in 1903, Jackson had reorganised the Western Australian education system so completely that it was recognised as 'equal to, if not the best, system in Australia'. (1) A large part of that credit stemmed from his ability to focus the elementary curriculum on the economic needs of the colony using the 'new education' and advocating use of H.M. Schools' Inspector Thomas Godolphin Rooper's rural curriculum.

This article puts a fresh light on Jackson's elementary curriculum in Western Australia which was a unique blend of the 'new education', designed to complement the Western Australia government's economic development policies. In this respect, he followed the work of Rooper, who brought an agricultural emphasis to rural elementary education in England. In Western Australia, Jackson not only promoted the established practical forms of the 'new education' but, swayed by political leaders, encouraged a rural focus on the elementary government school curriculum, both for educational as well as utilitarian purposes, thereby serving the needs of the individual as well as the colonial economy.

Born in 1863, and educated at Charterhouse School and New College, Oxford, Jackson was called to the bar in 1893, but chose rather to serve his educational and social reform interests. At Oxford, he had been heavily involved with the university settlement movement, undertaking educational and social work among the poor in the East End of London. He became a resident at Toynbee Hall, a year after its establishment in 1884, (2) and remained for the next decade, gaining experience in practical education.

The first of its kind, Toynbee Hall was designed to bring university graduates and workingclass Londoners together to engage in a range of practical educational programmes intended to improve the situation of those 'forced to live less than decent lives', as well as 'impose a hierarchy of values' (3) on pupils. The Hall was named after one of Professor T.H. Green's best known pupils, Arnold Toynbee. Influenced by educators and philosophers such as T.H. Green, Samuel Barnett and Matthew Arnold, Jackson strove to be 'able to move throughout society without ever feeling in an alien world'. (4) By all accounts he rarely failed with students, teachers or parents. Conservative politicians and administrators, however, were a different matter. (5)

Jackson, an elected member of the London School Board from 1891 to 1896, keenly promoted the 'new education' and advocated manual training in schools as a member of 'the London School Board when it [manual training] was being started and for a portion of that time [was] chairman of the committee which pushed it on'. (6) He also 'organised a relief committee in Limehouse for the distribution of the Mansion House Fund,' (7) to promote relief of all suffering from sudden calamities, and promoted a boy's club at the Northey Road School. (8) In all these activities Jackson extended manual training programmes which he then took to Western Australia, developing them as an important part of the extended, re-energised, curriculum there. More than this, however, Jackson linked the government school curriculum to the government's development policies.

To date, there is no definitive biography for Cyril Jackson. The Oxford Dictionary of Biography gives a short comprehensive record of his working life, explaining that Jackson was a private person, (9) while the Australian Dictionary of Biography provides a slightly more comprehensive article, (10) and he is mentioned in works about Toynbee Hall. (11) Predictably, his six years as Inspector General are the subject of Hyam's chapter in Turney's Pioneers of Australian Education, (12) and in Western Australia, where his influence was most felt, he is the subject of Murray Lake's 1975 Masters' thesis (13) and a chapter, by Lake, in Fletchers' Pioneers of Western Australian Education. (14) His work is given a lighter treatment in Mossenson's State Education in Western Australia, (15) and White in Neal's volume on Western Australian education. (16) Fletcher devotes but one paragraph to Jackson in a chapter on education in Stannage's A new history of Western Australia. (17) The most useful of all the contributions to this field is Tully's doctoral thesis on pre-vocational education in Western Australia which traces the political influences on Jackson to provide a pragmatic education for the colony providing some background for this work. (18)

Autobiographical works explain Jackson's own views on education, unemployment, industrial relations and child health and the value of country living. (19) His works add to our understanding of his pragmatic ideology toward the working classes and underprivileged. Although described as a moderate, he was leader of the Municipal Reform Party, 'predominantly unionist in politics'. (20) Some of his controversial ideas, in particular his encouragement and advocacy of trade unions, were not well received in more conservative quarters. (21)

None of these works detail the pedagogical link between Jackson's 'new education' and the Western Australian government's economic development policies, although Hyams and Lake recognise some connection between the two and Tully convincingly describes the politics behind the connection. No one has enlarged upon Jackson's efforts to promote practical subjects, particularly agricultural or rural education, in Western Australian elementary schools, a move popular with political representatives in agricultural regions of Western Australian and the people generally. (22)

The 'new education' and Jackson's place within it

The 'new education' was a significant change in educational thinking which came out of the industrialised countries of the United States and Western Europe including England, toward the end of the nineteenth century. The Industrial Revolution coupled with political and social unrest produced an increasingly competitive industrial market place, which contributed to a rise in social dislocation. Before the 1880s, England had enjoyed leadership in the industrial marketplace, however, economic competition from European countries, particularly Germany, was eroding England's market share, causing concern in industrial and commercial circles. (23)

But the 'new education' was not only an attempt to answer the economic needs of the country, it was also an attempt to relieve the regimentation and pedagogical limitations of nineteenth century schooling. In replacing the older, or 'instrumentary' style with its three Rs and bookish approach to learning, it was hoped that children would learn to think and reason; to enunciate ideas, consider issues and develop into good, thoughtful citizens. In an increasingly industrialised, capitalistic and competitive environment, economic motives advanced social and humanitarian causes. Selleck describes the 'new education' as an educational philosophy which determined the form and focus of learning experiences from a wide range of practical subject choices. For this reason, discourse about the 'new education' was often confused and occasionally contradictory, complex and eclectic. (24)

In order to better understand the 'new education', Selleck identified six broad categories of proponents of the movement, none of which were mutually exclusive. The first, the practical educators, the group into which Jackson is best placed, promoted manual training, sloyd, science, drawing, nature study and physical education. They borrowed and adapted from the other categories to educate the whole child while providing skills to benefit both the individual and the economy. Motivated largely by economic expedience rather than educational theory, the practical educators argued that practical subjects had more educational and only incidental utilitarian value in order to progress their cause. (25)

The next four categories: the social reformers; the naturalists; the Herbartian educationists; the scientific educationists and the moral educationists, focused on various other elements of education philosophy and child development ranging from physical to moral and citizenship education. For instance, what had, under the 'instrumentary' system, been preparatory drill for future military service became, through the work of social reformers, a more general and sophisticated syllabus of gymnastic and physical movement exercises. The influence of Pestalozzi and Froebel on the naturalists educators added object lessons and nature study to the British curriculum. For the Herbartian educators, the key issue in education was morality, while the scientific educationists strove to bring scientific principles into the classroom, where, psychological methods were used to educate on a rational and scientific basis.

The final category, the moral educationists, who were widely supported by educators generally, took moral training to the level of a classroom subject rather than 'working through the general school discipline' as the instrumentary teacher had done. Industrialisation and with it, the 'crumbling of traditional moral and religious beliefs drew many to the cause of moral instruction'. (26) These were the motives which drew Barnett to establish Toynbee Hall thus identifying Jackson with this group.

As mentioned, Jackson was a practical educator, borrowing and adapting from not only all other categories defined by Selleck but from beyond those listed to suit the need of the time. In Western Australia, he expanded upon his predecessor's tenuous progressive efforts while introducing manual training, Sloyd, (27) science, drawing and nature study. He was opportunistic and pragmatic in his approach. In this respect, the introduction of rural education and school gardens was something relatively new in both England and Western Australia. (28)

Western Australia: the economic and political setting

Until 1893, Western Australia was an underdeveloped economic backwater spanning one third of the Australian continent. Distance and a lack of 'money, men and markets' were Western Australia's biggest problems, greater by far than those of Victoria or New South Wales. At times, the colony had reached the brink of failure, compelling the government to act when possible. The introduction of convict transportation in 1850 was a drastic step taken to boost the struggling economy, while land grant railway projects used private finance in an effort to improve colonial infrastructure. (29)

In 1889, while Western Australia's political leaders were campaigning for bicameral representation in parliament, the Times newspaper of London referred to Western Australia as 'diminutive, stagnant, unprogressive and commercially inactive'. In response, Western Australia's Governor Napier Broome, alarmed by these 'extraordinary delusions' (30) in the London press which threatened to retard immigration and stop the Constitution Bill on its way through Parliament, established a Royal Commission on Agriculture (The Venn Report). The Commissioners, all members of Perth's governing elite which included pastoralists, graziers and wealthy land owners, reiterated the long held views of the government that inducements to regional immigration, land development, investment and agricultural education in the south west were needed to develop the colony's economy. (31)

Stymied by Colonial Office refusal to allow for the raising of loans for colonial development, the colony's development policies awaited 'responsible government' in 1890 to become a reality. Fortuitously, within three years, the discovery of gold brought the colony to remarkable prominence and gave it an enviable overseas credit rating. This enabled the government, through the leadership of first Premier (later Lord) John Forrest, to begin a programme of economic development which would dominate the economic, political and cultural landscape for the next forty years.

Forrest's policies were based on two goals: the development of natural resources; and the centralisation of political and economic administration in Perth. While some mining and timber milling brought wealth to the colony, when alluvial gold was no longer plentiful, agriculture became the economic mainstay. Using recommendations of the Royal Commission into Agriculture, 1891, Forrest began a series of development programmes to increase the infrastructure needed for the south west of Western Australia. These programmes including: launching of a major migration campaign in the United Kingdom to bring settlers to work the land; making land acquisition easy for the poor migrant by passing the Homestead Act; and establishing of the West Australia Bank. Railway building and harbour development became a major source of employment requiring skilled and semi-skilled labour, (32) and the Bureau of Agriculture was established to teach and encourage farmers. The suggestion that an Agricultural College be established was, however, rejected on economic grounds. (33)

Brief background to education in Western Australia

Prior to Jackson's arrival in Western Australia, government education played no part in economic development. The education system struggled to develop and enlighten its students in a political climate resistant to change, parsimonious toward education, and more keenly sensitive to mimic Victorian Britain than the eastern states of Australia. Important aspects of England's Forster Act (1870) were mirrored in Western Australia's Elementary Education Act (1871), resulting in the formation of a Central Board in Perth, while Magisterial District School Boards acted as a conduit between the Central Board and Government Schools. Unlike the English system, fees were collected from parents and passed on to the Central Board; centralising authority and resources. Though touted as remarkable reform and including a compulsory attendance clause the system was flawed. 'Payment-by-results', based on attendance and examinations encouraged the 'instrumentary' curriculum. (34)

By 1887, promoters of progressive reform were influencing change. A Royal Commission 'into the system of Education in government primary schools to make suggestions for the improvement of the same', was established. Chaired by David Shearer, the Commission recommended reform of 'payment-by-results', use of modern texts and promotion of a practical and utilitarian syllabus including domestic science, bookkeeping, mechanical drawing, agriculture and woodwork. Although rejected by the Central Board of Education as unworkable and expensive, educational reform gained momentum over the next decade. (35)

In 1889 George Randell, JP Mayor of Perth and variously MLC and MLA, was instrumental in the establishment of a committee to inquire into technical education, meaning manual work, into Western Australian schools (36) and in 1891, the James report recommended a system of technical education beyond Randell's vision. As Tully puts it, it 'invoked the modern secondary school curriculum'. (37)

In 1893, the Western Australian government established an Education Department led by a Minister of Parliament. Between 1890 and 1899 the administrative head of the Department was the Under Secretary of Education, O.P. Stables, who took control of most administrative matters wielding authority in many respects counter to the progressive motives of educators. (38)

Next in line to Stables was Schools Inspector James P. Walton who evaluated schools and teachers on the basis of the examinations of the pupils. 'Payment-by-results', was later described as 'pernicious' and abolished in 1895 when Walton was able to modernise the education system by categorising schools according to enrolments and providing teachers with a system of promotion according to qualification. These changes made it essential that promotion and transfer be handled centrally. Walton added history, singing, and object lessons to the curriculum, as well as a kindergarten course for infants. Drill was introduced by parliamentary resolution. (39)

When Jackson arrived in Western Australia in 1896, he began his five year contract by assessing the education system. Beginning with the poor standard of buildings, lighting, furniture and apparatus, and qualified staff, Jackson noted the need for a different system of school and staff classification and a more liberal system of student promotion. He also advocated a scheme for small schools to relieve the pressure on teachers to provide seven levels of education for 30 students or less. He suggested practical changes to the compulsory regulations to encourage attendance and placing private schools and truant and industrial schools under the inspection of the education department. (40)

Unfortunately, his opinion found its way into the newspaper. In publicly describing its very poor quality he clashed with the Minister of Education, Edward H. Wittenoom, and O.P. Stables. (41) A struggle for control developed from which Jackson emerged victorious. There is no doubt, however, that he could not have succeeded had Premier, John Forrest, the chief proponent of economic development, not stepped in. (42) Premier Forrest removed the position of Under Secretary of Education and replaced Wittenoom with William Lefroy, a more progressive and helpful Minister. Jackson, as Inspector General, was then made the permanent head of the department, and with the support of the new Minister, began to make significant changes to the curriculum. (43)

Jackson visited the eastern states of Australia to familiarise himself with education there. The 'new education' had not yet been implemented and the east was economically depressed. However, he was impressed with the Fort Street School in Sydney, and Hartley's monthly children's magazine, The Children's Hour, in South Australia, which added Australian content to meager reading texts. (44)

Upon his return, Jackson established two monthly publications, the Western Australian School Paper and the Education Circular. The former was aimed directly at children in schools. Mindful that he was speaking mainly to British children in Western Australia, Jackson used English and Western Australian content, inviting teachers to submit suitable articles regarding local flora and fauna, town activities, special events and the local economy. The Education Circular, was a means of communicating and instructing teachers throughout the colony. The 'new education' was explained through example syllabi and lessons described in this publication.

Jackson's 'new education' in Western Australia

Jackson's 'new education' attempted to motivate working-class students to learn by making the task relevant and practical. In England, Jackson provided a good example of the short-sighted attitude often shown by less educated workers: A boiler-man was unable to get the injector to deliver the feed water. He consulted an assistant, who advised him to apply to the head of the engineering department. He answered, 'If I goes to he, he will want to explain the blooming thing. Now I'se paid to work this 'ere boiler, I'se not paid to understand it'. (45)

It was this myopic attitude which Jackson sought to address through progressive educational reform. His aim was to re-ignite the natural curiosity of children, allowing them to question, talk, think and share aspects of each educational experience, rather than sit passively in a regimented classroom listening to the teacher without question or discussion.

Jackson introduced manual training as part of the 'manual occupations' beginning with the kindergarten curriculum. (46) He also promoted science in the form of nature study, and drawing. Arithmetic, English, object lessons and geography were given a fresh, practical perspective. A devout member of the Church of England, Jackson was an advocate of religious instruction in schools encouraging all denominations to provide moral and spiritual guidance. (47) He adhered to Herbartian principles as part of his philosophy of nurturing and educating the whole child. Addressing a group of teachers he told them that above all they: had to train not only the intellects, and not only the bodies of the children of the Colony, they had to train their souls to make them citizens of the future; to make the population of Western Australia upright and honourable; not only clever, but thoroughly loyal citizens, people who would carry the Colony ahead and not leave it in the wake, people who would make the Colony flourish where it had previously appeared to be a desert waste, and make its religion really alive and pure. It was with the teachers the future of the Colony mainly rested. (48)

There is no indication that Jackson elevated moral training and citizenship to the level of a classroom subject; however, singing, fife and drum bands and end of year concerts were encouraged with many of the items being patriotic songs, skits, tableaux and poetry of the empire. The teaching of history and geography was imbued with imperialistic doctrine which portrayed Britain as the proud coloniser and Australia as a part of that Empire 'upon which the sun never set'.

Jackson's educational and utilitarian curriculum

Unlike the introduction of the 'new education' in other Australian states, (49) Jackson's 'new education' was strongly aligned with the agricultural development policies of Western Australia. While the usual, practical subjects were printed in the regulations, elementary agronomy and school gardens, which were generally not a part of the movement, were added in the Education Circular as an after thought. (50) Echoing progressive ideas from Great Britain, Jackson's Western Australian syllabus introduced subjects which would train the eye and the hand, and engage the child. These activities he called 'Manual Occupations', and occasionally, 'Manual Training'. He did not use the term exclusively for boys in the woodwork shed although inevitably this was part of the greater scheme. Jackson's manual training began in the Infant classes with cardboard sloyd--based on objects and geometric figures; modelling--clay, putty, plaster of paris, sgraffito work; picture framing--leather, paper, wood, cork, cones etc.; book binding; brushmaking; rope-making; string manipulation -netting and hammocks; and plaiting--straw, cane, basket-making, rush weaving, whip-plaiting. (51)

Extending to the upper standards, manual occupations progressed to become more challenging: metal work--tin turning, wire work; lead punching, based on design; wood work - carpentry, fretwork, wood carving, chip carving, wood punching; lathe work based on geometrical design and freehand [drawing]; cutting designs on glass; cooking and elements of domestic economy (girls); and fancy needlework - infinite variety (girls). (52)

This innovatory curriculum design was, within the six years of Jackson's tenure, spread throughout the elementary school. Drawing, as the basis of eye-hand work, became a major component of school work; and important parts for design work became foundation skills for the artisan.

The 'new education', however, advocated that the subject was not more important than the child's engagement in the process of learning, experiencing and acquiring an appreciation for it. For this reason it was easy for Jackson to place agricultural pursuits at the front of the list of pursuits associated with the 'new education'. This was an unusual way of marrying the best of the principles of the 'new education' with those of rural education, and was not dissimilar to the educational ideas of H.M. School-Inspector, Thomas Godolphin Rooper, who was celebrated in educational circles in Britain as the 'guiding spirit of the whole movement [of rural education]'. (53)

With the influence of Colonial Secretary and new Minister for Education, George Randell and later, Premiers Walter James and George Throssell, Jackson introduced H.M. Schools Inspector T.G. Rooper's rural curriculum into the Western Australian curriculum. (54) In England, Rooper sought the 'adaptation of curricula to the circumstances of children and their surroundings, and the introduction of more practical teaching'. He tried, 'to differentiate the curriculum of the rural from that of the urban school, not by lowering the standard of education, but by making the child's environment the basis of his lessons'. (55)

He was keenly involved in the promotion of rural education through nature study, being, in 1899, a founding member of the executive of the Agricultural Education Committee, and helped with the Nature Study Exhibition of 1901. The Boscombe British School Gardens were a model of his concept of the school garden emulated by Jackson. (56) Jackson's geography suggestions to teachers emulated Rooper's efforts by including elementary meteorology, astronomy and surveying which were integrated with rural education and the school garden. (57)

Jackson's first article in the Education Circular, describing the establishment of a school garden in Esperence, encouraged similar work of experimental quality in all government elementary schools; and was attractive for its subject matter, soon to be taken up by the Department of Agriculture on State Farms. (58)

Every Education Circular contained at least one article on drawing, agricultural pursuits, or an object lesson. By 1900, Jackson was integrating lessons to advance both teaching technique and student involvement. (59) Articles were carefully selected from English and eastern states periodicals for the Education Circular. This included sample syllabi and lesson plans summarised to promote agriculture as a science subject and being justified through examples from other countries. The push for nature study through object lessons was one of Jackson's main goals. For example, one of his many articles concludes with a 'sample syllabus'--a list of possible topics for nature lessons for one term.

These include walking to a 'wood' and investigating:

1. Fruits and seeds scattered by the wind and lying on moist ground;

2. Fallen leaves in various stages of decay;

3. Note what parts resist decay longest; prepare skeleton leaves and impressions of veins;

4. Work of toadstools, moulds; possibly bacteria in decay of leaves;

5. Work of earth worms;

6. Leaf mould compared with sand or clay etc. (These might be done experimentally);

7. Bare twigs from which the leaves fell; discovery of bark, leaf-scars, buds;

8. Several lessons on buds and their means of protection against cold, wet and animals; and

9. Several lessons on the bark and its inhabitants. (60)

Unfortunately, translating northern hemisphere lessons to a southern hemisphere climate was problematic, but Jackson knew that many teachers could creatively adapt to the provisions of their own environment and encouraged them to do so. The article considered the suitability of nature lessons for the science syllabus. Like Rooper, Jackson encouraged the integration of subjects. 'While botany is science' Jackson went on to say, 'observing flowers and plant matter can also relate itself to the world of aesthetics and description,' and so a language lesson may be conducted while observation is made all the more acute if the object under observation is also drawn, so integrating the subjects of science, object lesson, language and drawing. (61)

Jackson was most approachable and applauded self-help organisations such as unions and associations whose aims were of benefit to education. Unlike Premier John Forrest, Jackson did not demur from attending and speaking at annual Teachers' Union conferences, encouraging Inspectors of Schools to promote and be actively involved in Teacher Associations within their Districts. These met to share problems, knowledge, and teaching strategies and give demonstration lessons on various subjects. They grew in number and were an important source of learning for the poorly qualified teacher, or the experienced teacher attempting to grasp the new curriculum. (62)

Several branches of the Western Australian Teachers' Association/Union were formed throughout the colony by 1900, including branches in Albany, Fremantle, Bunbury, Narrogin, Geraldton and Kalgoorlie. Branch meetings, generally held at the largest school in each district, were often facilitated by District Inspectors who, along with teachers, took the opportunity to give talks and demonstrations relating to new subjects, principles of education and learning, and practical examples of lessons. Meetings were generally held on Saturdays and teachers gave their time freely, usually travelling some distance to attend. Often new subjects gave the most concern to teachers and the promise of a demonstration lesson produced the greatest turn out. (63)

Members of the Perth Association Branch meeting in June, 1899 watched the first demonstration lesson of Manual Training in the colony during which boys were instructed in planing, measuring and squaring and grooving. An article on the subject was then given by B.F. Storer, Instructor of Manual Training, Victoria: He laid great stress on the value of Manual Training from an educational as well as a utilitarian standpoint and showed that knowledge of drawing--Freehand and Geometrical--is applied wherever practicable, and everything is done with due regard to method and with great precision. (64)

The debate in England over whether the introduction of the subject was for utilitarian or educational purposes did not translate to Western Australian soil with the same vigor. In Western Australia it served both purposes and so, pleased all quarters. In proposing a vote of thanks, Mr. W.J. Rooney pointed out the harmony prevailing between work and that of the ordinary school; and Mr. Hugh Young 'dwelt on the great necessity for some such occupation of boys during that important period of their lives when they are leaving school'. The Education Circular noted 'a class in Manual Training for teachers is now being formed by Mr. Storer'. (65) By 1903, the necessary resources for Manual Training were beginning to reach larger country districts, but much work was still to be done.

In order to further the work of the curriculum in economic development, Jackson fostered the relationship between Education and other government departments. Percy Wicken from the Department of Agriculture included monthly 'Notes on Cultivation' in the Education Circular between June and December 1900. Thus school gardens began to develop. By December teachers began receiving a free monthly copy of the Journal of Agriculture, filled with practical suggestions for local farmers. (66) An article entitled 'Rural Schools in France' from a correspondent to the Times newspaper of London, was included in the Education Circular. Therein is a description of why agriculture should be included as a vital subject for all second and third year student teachers, the aim being to add an agricultural dimension to school work. Jackson was quick to add that it would be wrong to rely too heavily on the subject to the detriment of a well rounded education. (67)

The Agricultural and Education Departments shared a relationship of mutual benefit based upon common goals. Schools were able to obtain seeds and vine cuttings for their garden plots at no charge and often visits from Inspectors of other Departments encouraged the children's efforts. (68) The Department of Forestry also assisted by supporting Arbor Day in schools. Many varieties of trees were distributed and planted around schools to beautify grounds and teach children about tree growing. (69)

In addition, traditional subjects were allowed to include an agricultural bias. Mathematics took on a relevant and practical aspect as teachers were shown in several articles how to teach the measurement of dams and the climate as well as elementary land surveying. (70) Geography became far more practical and relevant, teaching children about their own area, landscape and physical features as well as climate and weather--all could be related directly to agricultural production. Climate and weather studies naturally flowed into astronomy and for these Jackson seconded the Government Meteorologist and Government Astronomer to write several useful articles for teachers. (71)

By 1903 many schools, particularly those in the country, had embraced the concept of the school garden.72 Children worked tirelessly and happily on their plots, often competing with other schools for a better spring display. In Narrogin, the Head Teacher, Phillip Turvey began a 'State School Experimental Farm'. The Chairman of the Narrogin District Board of Education used his plough and team and ploughed a 'selected strip of ground, and the boys followed this up by bringing an assortment of cereals and manures'. Jackson continued: It is Mr. Turvey's intention to cultivate cereals and grasses, more particularly those not at present grown in the district. In addition to teaching the children agriculture, this garden will, therefore, to a certain extent, furnish a series of experiments which can be seen by the surrounding farmers, who, so Mr. Turvey writes, are taking a great interest in the scheme. The Department warmly approves such action. (73)

This was two years before the establishment by the Agricultural Department of the Narrogin State Farm. Narrogin, in the heart of the wheat belt, was ideally positioned for this kind of local initiative.

Elementary education, however, was only the beginning of Jackson's work. In May 1900 the Perth Technical School opened. To complement the skills' needs of the mining industry, the railways and the building industry, the school offered courses in Chemistry, Assaying, Mineralogy, Carpentry, Metal-working, Wood-carving, and Drawing. The demand was so great that extra accommodation was arranged and courses in physics and mathematics were promised. A physical laboratory, new chemical lecture room, small metallurgical plant and enlarged metal-working shop with room for lathe work were to be added next. Mechanical drawing and plumbing were also being considered. While the school did not teach the trades, preferring the apprenticeship model for that, it did offer another venue for furthering the theoretical knowledge of students engaged in apprenticeship. (74)

The poor supply of well qualified teachers hampered educational development throughout the early years of Jackson's term. To relieve this situation he travelled to the eastern states to recruit teachers and inspectors. Aided by the depression from which the eastern states suffered in the 1890s, several excellent teachers and inspectors who were collectively known as, the 'wise men from the east', helped to inject new life into the Western Australian system. (75)

Jackson also applied pressure on the government for a training college; owing to funding constraints, (76) it was 1902 before it opened. Without a government secondary school system most pupil-teachers came directly from the upper levels of elementary schools. In many respects therefore, the educational level of the training college was secondary, rather than tertiary. Once the college was established, Jackson insisted that students gain a solid foundation in their first year through courses in scripture, English language, literature and history, Latin, geography, physiography, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, singing, reading and recitation, and theory and practice teaching. In their second and third years students studied agriculture and botany; the young men studied manual training, physics and chemistry; and the young women studied kindergarten, needlework and domestic economy. These subjects enhanced economic development in Western Australia, as well as fitting the whole person for life. (77)

Although Jackson left before a secondary level of government education in Western Australia developed, he was instrumental in establishing evening and continuation classes wherever teachers would implement them. These classes were designed to enable further education of those who had left school but who now wished to continue their studies. Subjects included 'ordinary' courses; English and Mensuration, but also extended to a range of technical and domestic subjects once again illustrating a utilitarian bias. (78) In 1901, John Forrest left State politics for a position in the first Commonwealth Parliament. For Forrest, it was a politically necessary and desirable career move. For education and economic development in Western Australia it was a retrograde step. Chronic political instability over the next decade hampered educational and economic development. (79) Although Jackson remained and continued to push the programmes he started, funding was difficult to obtain. Agricultural development then became the paramount source of government income through a land sales tax.

Conclusion

Driven to serve humanity, Jackson worked tirelessly to develop educational programmes and pursue humanitarian causes concerned with the condition of the working man. He not only reformed and modernised the system of education in Western Australia, but was called upon to do so at a pivotal time in the colony's history when economic development was desperately needed and education was of a particularly low standard.

His efforts to improve the system began with structural change to the Department of Education and ended with curriculum change which was agriculturally and technically based in order to supply Western Australia with, as Meadmore puts it, the 'willing and able' labour force needed to improve productivity and help to put Western Australia on the path to economic independence. Premier Forrest's influence on and support of Jackson cannot be denied. Therefore, when Forrest departed state politics in 1901, Jackson's ability to effect change diminished. Without Forrest's political and financial support, Jackson struggled to continue in the turbulent political and economic landscape then overtaking the State.

The connection between Jackson, Thomas Godolphin Rooper and the promotion of rural education in England needs further investigation. It appears that their motives, methods and goals were very similar, and that Jackson may well have had a stronger connection with Rooper than is yet known.

Jackson's educational philosophy placed the broad educational potential of the child within a utilitarian structure. He believed in providing children with an education which would open the mind and teach intelligent thought rather than rote, mechanical learning. Furthermore, he sought to enable students to appreciate beauty and precision, observe scientifically and reason through every aspect of their lives. Had Jackson stayed and been able to develop his programmes to fruition Western Australian education might indeed have become an inspiring example to other systems.

(1) R. Blair, 'Jackson, Sir Cyril (1863-1924)', rev. M.C. Curthoys, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34128, accessed 1 Aug 2007].

(2) S.Meacham, Toynbee Hall and Social Reform 1880-1914, London, Yale University Press, 1987, p. 2. Also Blair Jackson; A. Briggs and A. Macartney, Toynbee Hall: the first hundred years. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984, pp. 1-5.

(3) Meacham, Toynbee Hall, p. 12-13. Also, R.J.W. Selleck, The New Education: the English background 1870-1914, Melbourne, Pitman & Sons, 1968, p. 89 and p. 305.

(4) Meacham, Toynbee Hall, p. x and p.10.

(5) Blair, Jackson.

(6) State Records Office of Western Australia (S.R.O.W.A.), Education Department of Western Australia File (Ed. Dept), Rural Schools--Consolidation Canadian scheme, A.N. 45/1, Acc. No. 1497, Item 6, 1903, Jackson to Professor James W. Robertson, Ottawa, 5 September 1902.

(7) C. Jackson, Unemployment and the Trade Unions, London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1910, p. xi.

(8) (www.victorianlondon.org/buildings/mansionhouse.htm) Also Blair, Jackson. This school was later renamed Cyril Jackson School.

(9) Blair, Jackson.

(10) W. Birman, 'Jackson, Sir Cyril (1863-1924)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, vol. 9, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1983. pp 455-457.

(11) Briggs and Macartney, Toynbee Hall. Also Meacham, Toynbee Hall, p. 159.

(12) B.K. Hyams, 'Cyril Jackson and the introduction of the new education in Western Australia', in C. Turney (ed.) Pioneers of Australian education, Sydney, Sydney University Press, 1972.

(13) M.W. Lake, A study of the contribution of Cyril Jackson to Education in Western Australia. M.A. thesis, University of Western Australia, 1975.

(14) M. Lake, 'Cyril Jackson: professional administrator,' in Pioneers of Education in Western Australia, pp. 188--219.

(15) D. Mossenson, State Education in Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A., University of Western Australia Press, 1972, pp. 95-106.

(16) M. White, 'Extending educational opportunity, 1899-1917', in W.D. Neal (ed.), Education in Western Australia, Sesquicentenary Celebration Series, Perth, University of Western Australia, 1979, pp. 92-102.

(17) L. Fletcher, 'Education of the people', in C. T. Stannage (ed.) A New History of Western Australia, Perth, University of Western Australia Press, 1981, p. 570.

(18) K.L. Tully, Useful Schooling: an examination of pre-vocational education policy and provision in Western Australian government primary and secondary schools between 1893 and 1972, PhD, Curtin, University of Technology, 2000.

(19) C. Jackson, Unemployment and the Trade Unions. Also C. Jackson, 'Outlines of education in England', in H. Scott Holland (ed.), Christian Social Union Handbooks, London, A.R. Mowbray and Co., 1913; C. Jackson, 'The children's country holidays fund, and the settlements', in J.M. Knapp (ed.) The Universities and the Social Problem: an account of the university settlements in east London, London, Rivington, Percival and Co., 1895, pp. 87-105.

(20) Blair, Jackson.

(21) Jackson, Unemployment and the Trade Unions, p. vii. Also Blair, Jackson.

(22) Selleck, The New Education, pp. 128-132. Also, J.C Medd, 'Rooper's relation to rural education', in Tatton, The Selected Writings of Thomas Godolphin Rooper, London: Blackie, 1907, pp. 1xxi-1xxxii; C. Jackson, 'Manual occupations', Education Circular 1, no. 1, 1898, p.1; Annual Report of the Education Department of Western Australia,(A.R. Ed. Dept W.A.) in Votes and Proceedings of Parliament, (V&PP) various years, 1893-1930.

(23) Meacham, Toynbee Hall, p. x. Also P. Meadmore, The introduction of the 'new education' in Queensland, Australia, History of Education Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 3, 2003, p. 2.

(24) Selleck, The New Education, pp. 102-103 and p. 204; Also, Meadmore, 'The introduction of the 'new education', pp.2-3.

(25) Selleck, The New Education, pp. 106-109 and pp. 116-120.

(26) Selleck, The New Education, pp. 165-174, p.187, p.193, pp. 232-235, pp. 273-294 and pp. 299-300.

(27) A simple form of woodworking and manual occupation including green-wood carving originating from Sweden and Finland.

(28) Medd, 'Rooper's relation'.

(29) R.T. Appleyard, 'Economic and demographic growth', in Stannage, A New History of Western Australia, pp. 212-218.

(30) J. Forrest, 'Report on the land policy and Western Australia from 1829 to 1888, Etc'., in V&PP, 1888, p. vi.

(31) Royal Commission on Agriculture, 'Final report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture: to inquire into the condition of agriculture in the colony together with the causes affecting the same, and to make such feasible suggestions as may appear likely to advance the cultivation of the soil, and to increase the prosperity of those engaged in agricultural pursuits. 1891', V&PP, no. 1, 1891-1892, p. xii.

(32) S. Glynn, Government Policy and Agricultural Development: a study of the role of government in the development of the Western Australian wheatbelt 1900-1930, Perth, University of Western Australia Press, 1975, pp. 18-29.

(33) S.R.O.W.A. Ed. Dept W.A. Establishment of an agricultural college, Acc 1497, 3278/96, 1895.

(34) Mossenson, State Education in Western Australia, pp. 36-70. Also Fletcher, 'Community involvement in education: the first one hundred years', in W.D. Neal (ed.), Education in Western Australia, Perth, University of Western Australia Press, 1979, pp. 67-89.

(35) D. Shearer, 'Royal Commission to inquire into the system of education pursued in the government primary schools and into the management thereof, and to make suggestions for the improvement of the same, (D. Shearer)', Perth, V&PP, 1887-1888. pp. 1-3.

(36) G. Randell, 'Technical education' in Parliamentary Debates, Government Western Australia, 1889. p. 256.

(37) Tully, 'Useful Schooling', p. 49.

(38) Civil Service Commission, 'O.P. Stables evidence', in V&PP, 1895 Perth, 1894.

(39) Mossenson, State Education in Western Australia. p. 89. Also, S.R.O.W.A., Ed. Dept. W.A. Central Board of Education, (C.B.Ed.) 'Minutes of the central board of education', W.A.S. 582, Cons 205, 1887-93.

(40) C. Jackson, 'Interim report of Inspector General of Schools after first series of inspection visits, 1897', pp. 38-47, Minutes, Votes & Proceedings of Parliament (M.V. &P.P.) 1898, pt 1, vol. 2.

(41) Jackson, 'Interim report'. Also, B.K.Hyams, 'Cyril Jackson', pp. 248-249; Mossenson, State Education in Western Australia. p. 96.

(42) Lake, 'A study', pp. 17-20. Also F.K. Crowley, John Forrest, 1847-1918, Volume I, Brisbane, Queensland University, 1971, p. 280.

(43) Mossenson, State Education in Western Australia. p. 97; Also Lake, 'A study', pp. 17-18.

(44) Jackson, 'Report of the inspector general on visit to eastern colonies', in V&P.P. 1898.

(45) Jackson, Unemployment and the Trade Unions, p. 68.

(46) Jackson, 'Manual occupations'.

(47) Blair, Jackson.

(48) C. Jackson, 'Western Australian state school teachers' union, Mr. Jackson's address', Education Circular, vol.1, no. 10, 1899, p. 92.

(49) Meadmore, 'The introduction of the 'new education' in Queensland', p. 3

(50) Jackson, 'Manual occupations,' p. 1.

(51) J. Hammill, 'Manual training in state schools,' Education Circular III, no. 5 1900, pp. 56-58.

(52) Jackson, 'Manual occupations,' p.1. Also, Hammill, 'Manual training in state schools,' pp. 56-58.

(53) Medd, 'Rooper's relation to rural education,' pp. 1xxv-1xxvi.

(54) Randell, 'Technical education'; C. Andrews, 'West Australian state school teachers' union fifth annual conference,' Education Circular, VI, no. 11, 1903.

(55) Medd, 'Rooper's relation to rural education,' p. 1xxi.

(56) T.G. Rooper, 'An experiment in school gardening: the school gardens at the Boscombe British School,' in Tatton, Selected Writings.

(57) C. Jackson, 'Weekly weather reports,' Education Circular IV, no. 7, 1902; C. Jackson, 'Regional geography,' Education Circular V, no. 1, 1902; C. Jackson, 'Elementary land surveying,' Education Circular IV, no. 3, 1901; C. Jackson, 'The school garden,' Education Circular III, no. 1, 1900; C. Jackson, 'The school garden,' Education Circular V, no. 4, 1902.

(58) Jackson, 'Manual occupations,' p.1; Also M. White, The Mighty Heart, Narrogin, Western Australia, Narrogin Shire Council, no date.

(59) For example, C. Jackson, 'Nature object lessons,' Education Circular III, no. 1, 1900; Jackson, 'The school garden'; C. Jackson, 'Drawing and notes from a lesson on soil,' Education Circular III, no. 2 1900; C. Jackson, 'Outdoor walks and talks,' Education Circular III, no. 5, 1900; C. Jackson, 'A pattern school-ground,' Education Circular III, no. 5, 1900; C. Jackson, 'Leaf drawing,' Education Circular III, no. 7, 1901. This list is not exhaustive. Western Australia at this time lacked a Teacher Training College.

(60) Jackson, 'Outdoor walks and talks'.

(61) Jackson, 'Nature object lessons'.

(62) Jackson, 'Western Australian state school teachers' union, Mr. Jackson's address'; Also C. Jackson, 'West Australian state school teachers' union, annual conference,' Education Circular III, no. 10 1901; C. Jackson, 'West Australian teachers' union: south-western districts branch,' Education Circular III, no.3, 1900; C. Jackson, 'South Western S.S. teachers' association,' Education Circular II, no. 1, 1899; C. Jackson, 'West Australian teacher's union: south-western districts branch,' Education Circular III, no. 5, 1900.

(63) Jackson, 'Western Australian state school teachers' union, Mr. Jackson's address'.

(64) C. Jackson, 'Manual training demonstration,' Education Circular 1, no. 12, 1899.

(65) Jackson, 'Manual training demonstration'.

(66) C. Jackson, 'Journal of agriculture,' Education Circular III, no. 6 1900, p. 64.

(67) C. Jackson, 'Rural schools in France,' Education Circular III, no. 6 1900, p. 75-76.

(68) Jackson, 'Journal of agriculture'.

(69) C. Jackson, 'Experimental seed plots,' Education Circular 11, no. 1, 1899; Also Jackson, 'The school garden'; Jackson, 'Outdoor walks and talks'; Jackson, 'A pattern school-ground'; Jackson, 'Leaf drawing'; C. Jackson, 'Nature as school teacher,' Education Circular III, no. 9, 1901; C. Jackson, 'Arbor day', Education Circular III, no. 4, 1900; Jackson, 'Outdoor walks and talks'; C. Jackson, 'Arbor day', Education Circular III, no. 10, 1901; Jackson, 'Arbor day, 1910', ; C. Jackson, 'Vines supplied by agricultural department', Education Circular IV, no. 4, 1901; Jackson, 'An arbor day', Education Circular V, no. 1, 1902.

(70) C. Jackson, 'The measurement of dams', Education Circular III, no. 9, 1901; Also Jackson, 'Elementary land surveying'.

(71) Jackson, 'Weekly weather reports'; Also Jackson, 'Regional geography'; C. Jackson, 'Geographical notes, arbor day and astronomical notes', Education Circular V, no. 2, 1902.

(72) A.R. Ed. Dept. W.A. 1903 in V&P.P. 1904.

(73) C. Jackson, 'State school experimental farm', Education Circular III, no. 10, 1901.

(74) C. Jackson, 'The technical school', Education Circular III, no. 9, 1901.

(75) J.A. McKenzie, 'Wise man from the east: the educational career of senior inspector Miles', Early Days: the Journal of the Royal Western Australian Historical Society, vol. 8, no. 3, 1979.

(76) S.R.O.W.A. Ed. Dept W.A. Right Hon. Premier John Forrest, Votes on estimates--not to be exceeded. Con. 527, 2206/1898.

(77) Lake, 'C. Jackson: professional administrator', pp. 196-197 and p. 201.

(78) A.R. Ed. Dept W.A.1900, in V. & P. P. 1901; Also S.R.O.W.A. Ed. Dept W.A., Establishment of an evening school, Item 1629, 111-07, 1907-1911.

(79) B. K. De Garis, 'Self-government and the evolution of party politics 1871-1911', in T.C. Stannage (ed.) A New History of Western Australia, 1981, pp. 349-351.

JOANNE I.F. GODFREY

University of Western Australia

Joanne I.F. Godfrey is a doctoral student at the Graduate School of Education, University of Western Australia. Her research interests include the history of rural and regional education as it relates to government development policies; Social history in regional and rural settings; Oral history; and the politics of schooling. Email: joannegodfrey@hotmail.com