摘要：Objectives. I examined the frequency and developmental timing of traumatic loss resulting from the health disparity of homicide among young Black men in Baltimore, Maryland. Methods. Using a modified grounded theory approach, I conducted in-depth semistructured interviews with 40 Black men (aged 18–24 years) from January 2012 to June 2013. I also constructed adapted life history calendar tools using chronologies of loss, and (1) provided a comprehensive history of loss, (2) determined a specific frequency of homicide deaths, (3) indicated participants’ relationship to the decedents, and (4) identified the developmental timing of deaths. Results. On average, participants knew 3 homicide victims who were overwhelmingly peers. Participant experiences of homicide death started in early childhood, peaked in adolescence, and persisted into emerging adulthood. The traumatic loss of peer homicide was a significant developmental turning point and disrupted participants’ social networks. Conclusions. The traumatic loss of peer homicide was a prevalent life course experience for young Black men and identified the need for trauma- and grief-informed interventions. Future research is needed to examine the physical and psychosocial consequences, coping resources and strategies, and developmental implications of traumatic loss for young Black men in urban contexts. The epidemic of homicide among Black males in the United States has been named “a new American tragedy.” 1 Despite historic national declines in homicide deaths, 2 homicide remains the leading cause of death for Black youths aged 10 to 24 years. 3 Homicide disproportionately affects Black males in this age group, with the homicide rate for Black males (51.5 per 100 000) exceeding rates for their Hispanic (13.5 per 100 000) and White (2.9 per 100 000) male peers. 3 However, these statistics narrowly articulate the magnitude of this disparity in the lives of Black boys and men. In addition to premature death, homicide places Black males at disproportionate risk for experiencing the traumatic loss of a peer and becoming homicide survivors. Homicide survivors are the friends, family, and community members of homicide victims who face the task of living on after a loved one is murdered. 4–7 The sudden, violent, and preventable nature of homicide deaths distinguishes these losses as traumatic for survivors 8 and can produce adverse health consequences and complicate grief. 9–13 Despite our documented awareness of the overrepresentation of Black males among homicide victims, the unequal burden of traumatic loss experienced by young Black men as survivors remains understudied. My study addressed this gap by examining the life course frequency and developmental timing of traumatic loss resulting from the health disparity of homicide among a sample of young Black men (aged 18–24 years) in Baltimore, Maryland. Studies suggest that Blacks experience a higher likelihood of surviving a homicide death than any other racial/ethnic group, 9,13,14 and this is partly explained by location in context. 15,16 Blacks are more likely than are Whites to reside in neighborhoods of concentrated disadvantage where the incidence of homicide is higher. 17–23 Between 2010 and 2013, Baltimore experienced 873 homicides, of which 738 victims (85%) were Black males and 27 victims (3%) were White males. 24 This geographic concentration of disadvantage and violence increases the likelihood that Black males living in these neighborhoods will experience the traumatic loss of 1 or more homicide victims within their social networks. However, existing research has failed to capture the frequency at which the lives of Blacks are buffeted by the traumatic loss of homicide. 6 The lived experiences of Black males as homicide survivors have been almost entirely overlooked. 25 For Black males growing up in contexts of long-term risk, how often (frequency) and when (developmental timing) the traumatic loss of homicide occurs across the life course may produce varying developmental implications. 15,16,26,27 The nascent body of literature examining homicide survivorship has documented adverse mental and behavioral health consequences for survivors, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 9 anxiety and depression, 11 traumatic and complicated grief, 5,10,28 substance abuse, 13 emotional reactivity, 12 and a hindered ability to function. 12 However, the existing research on homicide survivorship has largely approached the study of this phenomenon as a dichotomous experience, asking participants to report whether they have survived a homicide death. 9–13 These studies failed to capture a multiplicity of homicide deaths and its potential consequences for survivors. Health outcomes may be worse for young Black men situated in economically disadvantaged contexts, who are at higher risk for surviving multiple homicide deaths across the life course. 15,26,27 The developmental timing (e.g., early childhood [0–5 years], school age [6–12 years], adolescence [13–17 years], and emerging adulthood [18–24 years]) of traumatic loss can also contribute to the health and well-being of Black male homicide survivors. 14,26 From a life course perspective, 29,30 life events that happen before or after established developmental norms are considered off-time and pose implications for subsequent development. 15,26,27 Consequently, the timing of homicide deaths along the developmental trajectories of survivors can shape their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral resources, responses, and outcomes. 26,28–30 However, this area of research remains largely unexplored. 6 In their review of the literature on homicide survivorship, Hertz et al. 6 noted that until research investigates the nature, extent, and developmental context of homicide deaths among the surviving family and friends of homicide victims, the health care system will be limited in both its understanding of the impact of homicide survivorship and its ability to respond appropriately to the needs of survivors. By using a life course perspective 29,30 and qualitative 31,32 and adapted life history calendar (LHC) methods, 33,34 I examined the frequency, multiplicity, and developmental timing of traumatic loss resulting from homicide in the lives of young Black men in Baltimore.
