摘要：Objectives. We examined whether kindergarten teachers' ratings of children’s prosocial skills, an indicator of noncognitive ability at school entry, predict key adolescent and adult outcomes. Our goal was to determine unique associations over and above other important child, family, and contextual characteristics. Methods. Data came from the Fast Track study of low–socioeconomic status neighborhoods in 3 cities and 1 rural setting. We assessed associations between measured outcomes in kindergarten and outcomes 13 to 19 years later (1991–2000). Models included numerous control variables representing characteristics of the child, family, and context, enabling us to explore the unique contributions among predictors. Results. We found statistically significant associations between measured social-emotional skills in kindergarten and key young adult outcomes across multiple domains of education, employment, criminal activity, substance use, and mental health. Conclusions. A kindergarten measure of social-emotional skills may be useful for assessing whether children are at risk for deficits in noncognitive skills later in life and, thus, help identify those in need of early intervention. These results demonstrate the relevance of noncognitive skills in development for personal and public health outcomes. Understanding what early characteristics predict future outcomes could be of great value in helping children develop into healthy adults. In recent years, much research has been directed toward understanding noncognitive traits in children that may increase the likelihood of healthy personal development and eventual adult well-being. 1 For predicting future success in the workplace, levels of cognitive ability measured through IQ or test scores alone are less predictive than measures of educational attainment, which require not just cognitive ability but also noncognitive characteristics such as self-discipline, academic motivation, and interpersonal skills. 2 Future likelihood of committing crimes is greatly influenced by noncognitive processes in development, such as externalizing behavior, social empathy, and effectively regulating emotions. 3 A recent study found that noncognitive ability in the form of self-control in childhood was predictive of adult outcomes ranging from physical health to crime to substance abuse. 4 The value of noncognitive skills has also been determined through evaluation of interventions such as the landmark Perry Preschool program, in which improvements in noncognitive skills related to behavior and academic motivation were found to be central to long-term effects on crime and employment. 5 Inadequate levels of social and emotional functioning are increasingly recognized as central to many public health problems (e.g., substance abuse, obesity, violence). Just as researchers study how academic achievement in a population can lift groups out of poverty, public health scientists are now studying how these noncognitive factors affect health and wellness across domains. Classification of characteristics into complementary cognitive and noncognitive categories is a convenient way to characterize competencies in human development. Cognitive skills involve achievement-oriented tasks, such as problem solving, and academic abilities, which are measured by achievement tests; the noncognitive category covers everything else, such as behavioral characteristics, emotion regulation, attention, self-regulation, and social skills. Designation of cognitive versus noncognitive skills oversimplifies the complexity of skills and the role of cognition. Cognitive skills are involved not only in intelligence and achievement, but also in attention, emotion regulation, attitudes, motivation, and the conduct of social relationships (e.g., Farrington et al. provide an overview of noncognitive traits in educational research 6 ). Noncognitive skills interact with cognitive skills to enable success in school and the workplace. 7,8 This is most easily seen in an educational setting. Achievement is driven by intellectual ability as well as by the self-regulation, positive attitudes, motivation, and conscientiousness that are required to complete educational milestones. Substantial differences in noncognitive skills have been found between those who graduate from high school on time and those who complete a general equivalency diploma, as reflected in subsequent adult and economic outcomes. 9 Interpersonal skills are also important for children navigating the social setting, and positive interactions with adults are essential for success in school. Success in school involves both social-emotional and cognitive skills, because social interactions, attention, and self-control affect readiness for learning. 10,11 An additional feature of noncognitive competencies is that they may be more malleable than cognitive skills and thus may be appropriate targets for prevention or intervention efforts. 12 Of course, the degree to which this is true depends on the specific skill and on multiple factors associated with children's characteristics and environment. Regardless, a challenge lies in effectively assessing children’s competencies at an early enough age that intervention or prevention efforts might be introduced. Although an assessment at any 1 point may be inadequate for summarizing an individual’s overall noncognitive competencies, it is useful to know what early competencies predict future success and avoidance of problems. This is especially relevant in light of studies showing the value of enhancing the social-behavioral and learning environment of young children, 13 to foster positive child development as well as to alter adult health and labor market outcomes. 11,14 A key characteristic of noncognitive ability in young children is social competence. Social competence encompasses both the ability to complete tasks and manage responsibilities and effective skills for handling social and emotional experiences. Children’s social competence can be assessed by their kindergarten teachers, who observe many instances in which children need to manage relations with peers and adults. The school setting provides the opportunity to observe children’s abilities to interact interpersonally as they cooperate with others to complete daily tasks and resolve conflicts. Such skills are important for successful progression in early grades. We investigated how well key late adolescent and early adult outcomes were predicted by teacher ratings of children’s social competence (1 indicator of early noncognitive ability) measured many years previously in kindergarten in participants from low–socioeconomic status neighborhoods. Specifically, we examined how a measure of early prosocial skills predicted outcomes spanning important sectors of education, employment, criminal justice, substance use, and mental health domains. We used a straightforward analytic approach: modeling the link between social competence measured in kindergarten and outcomes measured 13 to 19 years later. These models did not determine causal associations, despite the temporal ordering between predictors and outcomes. However, inclusion of several control variables, representing various characteristics of the child and family context, enabled us to explore the unique contribution of featured predictors. For predictors we focused on the earliest age for which data were available: measures obtained when children were in kindergarten. Throughout the analytic process we found it useful to consider whether other important background variables predicted future outcomes. However, our primary objective was to determine how well an inexpensive, easily obtained snapshot of social competence at formal entrance to school predicted important outcomes, after adjustment for other expected influences on development, such as family circumstances, gender, academic ability, and behavior. If such a measure can identify early noncognitive deficiencies, this could provide important information for determining potential targets for early intervention.
