Regret has been defined as a negative cognitively based emotion that is experienced after individuals consider an alternative to an action taken or not taken (Zeelenberg, 1999). For example, discovering that someone in your neighborhood won the lottery may result in feeling regret over not buying a ticket. Regret is situational and can be influenced by one's decision-making processes (Zeelenberg, 1999). To help clarify our understanding of decision-making behaviors, researchers have turned to regret theory (Zeelenberg, 1999). Regret theory presumes that when individuals are confronted with the results of a decision, they are likely to compare the actual results to hypothetical results. If the hypothetical choice yields a more positive outcome than the actual choice, feelings of regret may follow. As such, an athlete who stayed up late talking to his girlfriend on the phone the night before a game may consider how much better he would have performed had he gotten more sleep, leaving him feeling regretful about his choice.

Regret has the capacity to be both negative and positive. Experiencing regret can be harmful when individuals ruminate on missed opportunities or actions taken. This repetitive negative thinking can lead to negative mental health consequences (Roese et ah, 2009), decreased life satisfaction and ineffective coping skills (Lecci, Okun, & Karoly, 1994; Schwartz et al., 2002). Medvec, Madey and Gilovich (1995) conducted a series of studies on satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Results revealed the connection between counterfactual thoughts and happiness, with silver medalists feeling less happy compared to bronze medalist because they considered what they could have won (i.e. gold medal), whereas bronze medalist considered what could have lost (i.e. any medal). Others, however, have used regret thoughts to help in their future. As Koch (2014) describes: feeling regret may be aversive, whereas learning from regret is not.

Anticipated regrets have been used to predict unsafe risky behavior, substance use, eating behavior, exercise behavior, and road safety (Abraham & Sheeran, 2004; Elliott, Thomson, Robertson, Stephenson, & Wicks, 2013; Janssen, Waters, van Osch, Lechner, & de Vries, 2014; Smercnik & Ruiter, 2010; Weijzen, de Graff, & Dijksterhuis, 2009). Individuals who were asked to consider possible regrets they may experience as a result of their decisions, ultimately reported fewer regrets than those not prompted to consider future regrets (Richard, van der Pligt, & de Vries, 1996; Robbins & Stanley, 2012; Simonson, 1992). Some have hypothesized that anticipated regret binds people to their intentions (Abraham & Sheeran, 2003). As such, contemplating future regrets I may experience if I miss a day of exercise may ultimately strengthen my intention to exercise. Additionally, if anticipated regrets lead people to engage in thoughtful decision making, these thoughts and speculated future feelings could directly improve future decision making attempts.

To date, regrets have been assessed using several multi-item scales (Clark et al, 1997; Clark, Wray, Brody, & Ashton, 2001; Creyer & Ross, 1999; Inman & Zeelenberg, 2002; Tsiros & Mittal, 2000; Zeelenberg & Beattie, 1997). A systematic review by Joseph-Williams, Edwards, and Elwyn (2010) identified 10 published measures of regrets. The earliest included measure was published in 1997 (Clark et ah, 1997), and the most recent in 2008 (Marcatto & Ferrante, 2008), highlighting the novelty of regret measurement development. While all the scales have face validity, some have been criticized for incomplete psychometric data on reliability and validity (Zeelenberg & Beattie, 1997, Tsiros & Mittal, 2000; Inman & Zeelenberg, 2002). Additionally, many scales incorporated situation-specific questions that reduced their generalizability (Clark et al, 1997; Clark et ah, 2001; Creyer & Ross, 1999; Inman & Zeelenberg, 2002; Tsiros & Mittal, 2000; Zeelenberg & Beattie, 1997).

Out of the ten regret scales identified by Joseph-Williams et ah (2010), four measures are directly related to health research (Brehaut et ah, 2003; Clark et ah, 2003; Clark et ah, 1997; Godin et ah, 2005), two focus on psychology (Marcatto & Ferrante, 2008; Schwartz et ah, 2002), and four measures are directed at marketing, business or economics (Creyer & Ross, 1999; Keaveney, Huber, & Hermann, 2007; Sheeran & Orbell, 1999; Tsiros, 1998). Of those in the health context, two measures have been found to be reliable and valid (Clark et al, 1997; 2001), but they are specific to men with metastatic prostate cancer. One measure in the economic context, the Regret Experience Measure, is the most carefully developed regret scale to date and it is used to assess regrets related to sales decisions (Creyer & Ross, 1999). The measure was developed under the assumption that regret is associated with self-blame (Connolly & Zeelenberg, 2002; Sugden, 1985). However, additional research shows that regret can be experienced without self-blame (Creyer & Ross, 1999; Connolly & Zeelenberg, 2002). To address this issue, Brehaut et ah (2003) created the Decision Regret Scale (DRS). This scale assessed regrets after patient treatment-related decisions. The DRS showed good reliability and validity support in its initial development (Brehaut et ah, 2003) and was further validated by Hickman, Pinto, Lee, and Daly (2012) who assessed separate clinical populations.

While the DRS may be one of the most reliable and validated health care decision making scales, it still may not be relevant for use with other populations, such as athletes. Ultimately, the generalizability of regret scale use is limited because most scales were developed for specific situations or domains (e.g., health research context, marketing, business). Additional criticisms of the current measures of regret concern their focus and inconsistent use of definitions on the surveys themselves (Joesph-Williams et ah, 2010). This issue impacts conclusions that can be drawn from such measures as some participants may have been unaware of the type of regret (e.g. anticipated or experienced) they were referencing, or what regret means (Brehaut et al,, 2003; Creyer & Ross, 1999; Clark et al., 1997; Godin et al., 2005; Sheeran & Orbell, 1999). The current project aimed to address these issues by creating a measure focused solely on athletes' experienced regrets and using the definition of regret which explains it as a negative emotion- or range of emotions--associated with feelings that an action or series of action could have been carried out more suitably, often followed by comments like "If only I had ..." or "If only I hadn't ..."

This measure is extremely important for sport because regret is not only an affective reaction, but also a powerful force in motivating future behavior and shaping future decisions (Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2007). As researchers improve their understanding of regret and other decision-related emotions, people should be able to improve their choices, or at least better accept their choices (Connolly & Zeelenberg, 2002). This would be ideal in athletic venues where decisions are made quickly and constantly.

Research into regret in sport has only recently begun with the identification of common regrets among athletes (Robbins & Stanley, 2013; Robbins, Madrigal, & Stanley, 2015). In one of the first studies examining regret in sport, 46 former female NCAA Division I field hockey players were asked if they had any situations they regretted from their collegiate athletic careers. Using an open-ended format, athletes were able to describe the situations they experienced, how they handled them and how they could have handled them better. Based on these responses, the following six areas of regret were identified: team, priorities, communication, role, confidence, and transition (Robbins & Stanley, 2013). Some of these reported regrets related to a lack of team cohesion, not accepting a role, insufficient confidence, and having difficulties transitioning between high school and collegiate sport. Similar regrets were identified among a group of current female college field hockey and soccer players (Robbins & Stanley, 2012). To further our understanding about the extent of regret feelings in athletes more empirical support is needed. Such support can then lead to interventions that target common regrets athletes face before going into their season or throughout their season (e.g., before or after a competition).

To date, all research addressing regrets in sport has utilized open-ended questions, making it difficult to assess larger populations. If empirical investigations of regrets in sport are to continue, a psychometrically and theoretically sound measure of regrets must be developed. Previous work by Robbins et al. (2015) have set a path for developing such a measure. Robbins et al. (2015) collected regrets from 172 athletes from team and individual sports. A total of 1,236 regrets were reported by these athletes, with two of the most common regrets involving eating and sleeping behaviors (Robbins et al., 2015). Additional regrets that were reported were in relation to academic behaviors, fluctuations in confidence over the season, and limited control over their emotions and focus (Robbins et al., 2015). Using the domains identified in this research; namely, relationships, sport behaviors, health, cognition, school behavior, and life skills- the current study created a scale to quantifiably assess regrets in sport.

Although there may be several constructs that correlate with athlete regrets, for the purpose of this initial scale development, the current study focused on providing convergent validity support with mental toughness only. In sport, mental toughness is considered to be a desired quality because it encapsulates an ability to cope with adversity while maintaining a sense of composure (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002). Mental toughness is a personality characteristic encompassing attributes such as resilience, self-confidence, commitment, and focus (Connaughton, Hanton, & Jones, 2010). Additionally mentally tough individuals are able to thrive under pressure and cope effectively with adversity (Crust, 2008). While multiple attributes are contained in the meaning of mental toughness, they have been found to overlap, allowing researchers to conceptualize mental toughness as a unidimensional construct (Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, & Temby, 2014).

Mental toughness is considered to be a positive characteristic, and existing research links it to better performance (Gucciardi et ah, 2014), lower perceived stress (Brand et al., 2014), increased psychological well-being (Stamp et al., 2015) and greater use of problem-focused or approach style coping strategies (Nicholls, Polman, Levy, & Backhouse, 2008). The researchers, therefore, hypothesized that this mindset and ability to cope with various outcomes would likely lead to fewer negative ruminations about behaviors or choices, and thus fewer regrets.

Taken together, sport participation has the possibility of increasing one's regretful thoughts and these thoughts may overtime lead to a decrease in well-being. Conversely, mental toughness is an attribute that can enhance both perfonnance and well-being. These constructs would appear to fall on opposite ends of a mindset continuum. If this is true, and athletes with higher mental toughness scores also have fewer regrets, it would suggest another benefit of teaching strategies to enhance this quality in athletes.

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure to assess regret in sport. Since no current measure exists, an exploratory factor analysis was necessary to explore the emergence of potential regret factors. Additionally, we examined the convergent validity of the resulting scale by correlating it with a related (i.e., mental toughness) construct. The practical goal was to create a measure that could be completed pre-season, mid-season and/ or post-season to help athletes recognize past mistakes or poor choices and plan impending behaviors to eliminate future regret feelings.

Method

Participants and Design

This was a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study. Convenience sampling was utilized given the pilot nature of the work (Bernard, 2013). Atotal of 335 Division I and II National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes (187 male and 123 female) were given the questionnaire. We excluded 25 cases due to missing information (11 males, 14 females). A total of 310 athletes (187 male, 123 females; 194 Division 1, 116Division II) with a mean age of 19.96 (SD= 1.27) were included in the final analysis. Information on year in school, ethnicity and type of sport can be found in Table 1.

Measures

Regrets. A 52-item scale was developed that addressing regrets in the areas of Relationships, Sport Behavior, Health, Cognitions, School Behavior, and Life Skills. A definition of regret (i.e., regret is defined as a negative emotion- or range of emotions-associated with feelings that an action or series of action could have been carried out more suitably, often followed by comments like "If only I had ..." or "If only I hadn't ...") was given prior to the first item. Participants were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert type scale the degree to which they were experiencing similar regrets in connection with their most recent season (1 = not at all', 5= very much). Further scale development information is described in the Procedure.

Mental Toughness. The Mental Toughness Scale (MTS; Madrigal, Hamill, & Gill, 2013) is an 11-item scale used to measure mental toughness (e.g., "I have the patience and discipline to control my efforts to achieve each goal along the ladder of success"). Participants rate their agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree', 5 = strongly agree). Items are summed and higher scores indicate greater mental toughness. The MTS has demonstrated good reliability and validity, converging with related measures such as flow, r (269) = .62, p < .05, and maintaining internal reliability ([alpha] = .86) and 1 week test-retest reliability (r = .90; Madrigal et al., 2013). For this study mental toughness had good internal reliability ([alpha] = .91; 44.51; SD = 7.31).

Procedure

Institutional Review Board approval was received to create and test the regret scale. The initial scale was created by reviewing the existing regret findings. Based on previous work that identified six major areas of regret in athletes (Robbins et al., 2015), a 52-item scale was developed to capture all categories. These items were generated from the themes that emerged in the Robbins et al. (2015) qualitative analysis of regrets athletes experienced during a collegiate season. Using both the first-order and second-order themes from the study, a list of 52 items were created for the measure. These included: Relationships (5 items; openness with others, connecting with teammates), Sport Behavior (13 items; leadership, commitment, accepting role, work ethic), Health (13 items; eating, sleeping, injury-related, performance enhancements), Cognitions (11 items; negative thinking, confidence, emotional control, focus), School Behavior (6 items; class choices, work done in the classroom), and Life Skills (4 items; preparation for college, transitioning from last year to this, time management). The original 52 items selected for the regret scale are presented in Appendix A. The list was provided to the researchers who conducted the initial studies in this area to ensure it was representative of their overall findings.

Upon receiving confirmation regarding the scales' content validity, the researchers began recruiting possible participants. Eight fall season coaches were initially contacted. The coaches were asked if they would be willing to send an electronic link of the survey to their athletes, and although they agreed, only 68 athletes completed the online survey. As a result, an additional 19 coaches were contacted from a separate university and asked whether they would be willing to allow a researcher to attend a meeting or practice to recruit athletes

in person. Fourteen coaches agreed and meeting times were arranged during which the researcher explained the study, and collected informed consent forms and surveys. The group setting provided a more valuable response rate (n = 242). To be included in the study, athletes had to be current student-athletes who recently finished their competitive season. They all responded to the surveys within 1-2 weeks of their last game. Group settings were in a team locker room or at a closed practice facility. The survey took about 20 minutes to complete.

Statistical Analysis

Given that no current regret in sport measure exists, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was initially employed to explore the emergence of regrets among collegiate athletes. Pearson correlations were later run with the mental toughness results to assess convergent validity.

Results

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Prior to evaluating analyses with IBM SPSS, the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin measure of sampling adequacy yielded a .95, indicating that the present data were suitable for analysis (Kaiser, 1970). Similarly, Bartlett's test of sphericity was significant (p < .001), indicating sufficient correlation between the variables to proceed with the analysis. Principal axis factoring was selected as the method of extraction (i.e. allowing extractions of factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1). Since the categories of the regrets from which the 52-items derived are measuring aspects of the same underlying construct, they are expected to correlate o a higher degree. As such, a promax (i.e., oblique) rotation was employed.

The subject pool of 310 met Tabachnick and Fidell's (2007) suggestion of using at least 300 cases when running a factor analysis. The principal components extraction was used to create eigenvalues that maximize the amount of shared variability among the factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Ultimately 11 factors were extracted, accounting for 65.06% of the variance. However, the majority of items appeared to load on factor one, which explained a large majority of the variance, 32.14%, with factor two explaining only 5.80%, and factor three explaining 4.50%. Additionally, the scree test also supported that a one-factor solution was more appropriate (Cattell, 1966).

When forcing six factors-to mimic the possible six categories of regret initially expected- using a promax rotation, the majority of items again loaded on the first factor. A listing of factor loadings when forcing six factors is found in Appendix A. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) a factor loading of .60 is an acceptable criterion for retaining items. Using Factor 1 and given that all items loaded strongest on Factor 1, items were retained if they had a factor loading of .59 or above. This criterion results in 25 items remaining in the final Athlete Regret Scale. The one factor scale accounted for 44.63% of the explained variance. Analyses revealed that the items had moderate communalities ranging from 0.30-0.60. The 25-item scale has a mean scale score of 49.80 (SD = 19.68; ranging from 25-117), with a larger number indicating feeling more regrets. See Table 2 for the newly constructed Athlete Regret Scale with mean and standard deviation for each item. Reliability of the Athlete Regret Scale showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .95), with item-total correlations ranging from 0.51-0.74.

Convergent Validity

To further establish psychometric support, we examined convergent validity of the Athlete Regret Scale. The inverse related measure of mental toughness was expected to correlate substantially with the Athlete Regret Scale. This outcome was supported (r (308) = -.21, p< .01) through a negative relationship between mental toughness and regrets.

Discussion

This study examined the psychometric properties of the newly-developed Athlete Regret Scale. The results provide support for use of this scale among collegiate athlete populations to identify the extent and nature of their regret feelings. Previous research on regrets in sport identified six domains in which athletes competing at the collegiate level experienced regret feelings (Robbins et al., 2015). The initial 52-item scale addressed each of these domains separately. However, the 25-item resulting Athlete Regret Scale (see Table 2) captured the overall existence of regrets in college athletes by collapsing components of each domain into a single dimension.

To date there is no regret measure specific to the collegiate athlete experience, thus the current study aimed to create and validate a scale based on the strengths and weaknesses of existing measures in other fields. For example, few studies have conducted factor analyses on their measures, either in the development stage or in any subsequent work using the measure. Of those that did, The Anticipated Regret Scale (Sheeran & Orbell, 1999) is composed of two items, both of which loaded on a single factor (Abraham & Sheeran, 2003). Using an abbreviated version of the DRS, Diefenbach, Mohamed, Horowitz and Pollack (2008) found that their three regret items loaded onto one factor as well. Similar to these findings, the existing version of the Athlete Regret Scale was constructed as a result of factor analyses that yielded a one factor scale, accounting for 44.63% of the explained variance.

Beyond using factor analysis to construct the scale, the current study also provided initial internal consistency for the Athlete Regret Scale and preliminary convergent validity support. Several measures that have been used in previous literature on regret have failed to provide factor structure support or acceptable reliability. Of the 10 regret measures identified by Joseph-Williams et al. (2010), only three measures reported internal consistency above .90 (Brehaut et al., 2003; Keaveney et al., 2007; Sheeran & Orbell, 1999). The current study was able to provide better internal consistency than previously developed regret measures (Cronbach's alpha = .95); however, given the novelty of this work, further reliability tests are warranted.

The current study also provided validity support as mental toughness was found to be inversely related to regrets. Overall, mentally tough athletes are said to be in control, confident, and committed (Madrigal et al., 2013; Thelwell, Weston, & Greenlees, 2005), thus they would be more willing to consider situations more completely in the moment and make necessary changes to not make the same mistake twice. Thinking intensely about situations in advance may reduce the likelihood of making regrettable decisions. As well, individuals with these qualities would consider their mistakes and identify solutions, rather than ruminating on what could have been.

To extend these early and positive findings, additional research is needed to confirm the factor structure and further validate the usefulness of this measure. The Athlete Regret Scale is in an early development phase and future research can help determine test-retest reliability and construct validity of this measure. Construct validation can be ascertained by correlating the Athlete Regret Scale with other measures that assess similar constructs (i.e., convergent validity) and finding insignificant correlations with dissimilar measures (i.e., discriminant validity; Hinkin, Tracey, & Enz, 1997). Other regret measures such as DRS have compared satisfaction with health decisions, doctor's visits, and increased decisional conflict with their scale as a means of establishing construct validity (Brehaut et al., 2003; Diefenbach & Mohamed, 2007). Similarly, future studies on athletes may address the associations between the Athlete Regret Scale and other constructs such as satisfaction and need fulfillment. As well, divergent validity has been established with other measures of regret by correlating findings w ith mood disturbance scores and mental and physical health scores (Hickman et al., 2012). Similar steps should be taken to establish divergent validity for the current measure. In accordance with the steps outlined by Hinkin et al., (1997) on scale construction, construct validity and test-retest reliability must be established with the Athlete Regret Scale. As well, replication testing should include confirmatory factor analysis, assessment of internal consistency reliability and construct validation studies.

A primary strength of the study is that it took the initial steps toward creating a brief scale, which can be easily understood, and used to assess regrets in collegiate athletes. Until now, the absence of a quantifiable measure of regret required researchers use only open-ended questionnaires. These findings were necessary and beneficial in the development of the current measure, but they also required a great deal of time in both the assessment and analysis of results. As such the current scale builds on existing information related to regret in athletes specifically, while providing an option for assessing regrets that did not exist before.

There are some limitations to note in the current study. Although a sufficient sample was used to conduct a factor analysis, the reduction of items and conceptualization of a one-factor model now requires additional psychometric work to strengthen the applicability of the Athlete Regret Scale. This study was the first to establish good reliability, but test-retest reliability studies should be conducted to underlie the trustw orthiness of this measurement tool. Additionally, the current study took steps toward establishing convergent validity of the Athlete Regret Scale and mental toughness; however, the relationship was small. More work is needed to establish stronger support for convergent validity as well as divergent and criterion validity.

Although the Athlete Regret Scale is in the early development phase, after further psychometric testing, this scale could be used to increase awareness of existing feelings and encourage practical and immediate changes in athletes' thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. The short scale takes very little time to complete, making it useful for sport psychology professionals who want to assess regrets and provide feedback for discussion with athletes quickly. Once further support of the scale has been established, the Athlete Regret Scale will be of great interest to individuals such as coaches or sport psychology consultants who want a simple tool that leads to greater understanding of existing feelings and promotes conversations related to effective and ineffective decision making. The results would provide insights into athletes' feelings related to everything from effort and attitude, to diet and confidence. Use of this measure is intended to help athletes optimize their decision making, with the intention of improving both performance and satisfaction with their athletic experience.

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Leilani A. Madrigal

California State University, Long Beach

Jamie E. Robbins

Methodist University

Address correspondence to: Leilani Madrigal, Department of Kinesiology, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90840. Email: leilani.madrigal@csulb.edu

Table 1

Demographic Information on year in school, ethnicity,
and type of sport.

Year in School             Percent
  Freshman                 20.2%
  Redshirt freshman        23.2%
  Sophomore                29%
  Junior                   18.4%
  Senior                   8.7%
  Redshirt senior          0.3%
Race/Ethnicity
  Caucasian                75.8%
  African-America          14.8%
  Hispanic                 2.63%
  Asian-Pacific Islander   1.7%
  American Indian          1.2%
  Multi-Ethnic             3.9%
Type of Sport              Male      Female
  Basketball                         3.2%
  Bowling                  --        2.4%
  Field Hockey             --        26%
  Gymnastics               7.4%      8.9%
  Rifle Shooting           --        5.7%
  Soccer                   5.9%      11%
  Swimming and Diving      --        6.5%
  Track/Field              6.4%      19.5%
  Volleyball               --        17.1%
  Baseball                 11.8%     --
  Football                 56.7%     --
  Golf                     0.5%      --
  Wrestling                11.2%     --

Table 2
Factor Loadings, Means and Standard Deviations of the 25-item
Regret Scale

      Item                                       Factor       M(SD)
                                                 Loading
1     I regret not fueling enough (food and      .606      2.09(1.11)
      fluid) for practice and competition
2.    I regret having a negative attitude        .640      2.13(1.23)
3.    I regret not believing in myself           .692      2.63(1.43)
4.    I regret not taking my competitions/       .705      1.61(.97)
      sport more seriously
5.    I regret letting others influence my       .622      2.02(1.18)
      thoughts
6.    I regret giving in to peer pressure        .631      1.53(.91)
7.    I regret allowing my emotions to gel the   .644      2.20(1.29)
      best of me
8.    I regret not eating enough fruits and      .578      2.26(1.30)
      vegetables in my diet
9.    I regret not handling my frustrations      .675      2.12(1.24)
      effectively
10.   I regret not letting go of certain         .673      2.51(1.37)
      thoughts or situations
11.   I regret losing focus                      .728      2.16(1.28)
12.   I regret not working hard enough           .708      2.00(1.26)
13.   I regret not training correctly            .751      1.85(1.18)
14.   I regret not being prepared for each       .764      1.80(1.16)
      competition
15.   I regret not using all resources           .719      2.09(1.18)
      available for improving my sport
      performance
16.   I regret being inconsistent in my sport    .773      2.14(1.34)
      preparation and/or performance
17.   I regret spending too much time in         .626      1.45(.82)
      social activities
18.   I regret letting others influence my       .730      1.67(1.07)
      behavior
19.   I regret not managing my time better       .590      2.09(1.17)
20.   I regret not prioritizing sport more       .673      1.70(1.04)
21.   I regret not expressing my opinion to      .596      2.00(1.18)
      teammates more
22.   I regret not being confident enough        .658      2.50(1.46)
23.   I regret not being prepared for college    .633      1.69(1.04)
      life
24.   I regret not handling the transition       .671      1.69(1.08)
      from last year to this year more
      effectively
25.   I regret not prioritizing school more      .551      1.98(1.24)
      Total Athlete Regret Score