After completing a given task, many individuals are faced with a seemingly simple dilemma: Should I have done it differently? That is, did certain actions or inactions unfavorably impact the outcome? One's actions and subsequent emotional response to these questions may stimulate feelings of regret, which can generally be described as an individual's personal judgment of his or her errors or missed actions (Landman, 1993). After making a choice, people tend to judge themselves and contemplate whether another action or inaction would have resulted in a more preferable outcome. This afterthought is termed counterfactual thinking. In sum, if the alternative choice is deemed more favorable, regret is experienced (Zeelenberg, 1999).

Another form of regret, termed "anticipatory regret," which is addressed in advance of an action or lack thereof, involves deliberations over possible regrets, and these may contribute towards decision-making and future actions (Gavanski & Wells, 1989). The notion that individuals may act upon their own speculations related to regret fits nicely into an instrumental learning theory framework. Therefore, regrets may be a natural part of the socio-emotional milieu that accompanies development in a variety of contexts, as regret appears to impact behaviors, thoughts, and emotions, leading up to and following an event.

Both experienced and anticipated regrets have been studied to identify their prevalence, benefits and/or detriments in connection to well-being and decision-making. While regret may be apparent in many social contexts, very little research has been done in connection to sport. This general scarcity of research is surprising given the constant review processes used by athletes and coaches to detect errors and improve future performances (Robbins & Stanley, 2013). Additionally, the inherent probability for errors and losses in sports likely yields numerous opportunities for regrets on a daily and seasonal basis, as well as during transitional phases of a career. Further examination of regret in sport appears warranted.

Action vs. Inaction

Regret may be more formally defined as a negative affective state connected to a counterfactual thought (Connolly & Zeelenberg, 2002). Conflicting evidence exists regarding what situations lead to the most regret. Kruger, Wirtz, and Miller (2005) found that people regret actions more than inactions. Whereas other researchers have found that people regret inactions more than actions (Zeelenberg, Van Dijk, Van den Bos, & Pieters, 2002). Roese and Summerville (2005) explained that individuals regret areas of life they could change and have fewer regrets in domains of life that afford little change. On the other hand, Beike, Markman, and Karadogan (2009) found people regret lost opportunities, explained as situations they once could have changed, but now cannot change. This lack of control impedes closure, thus intensifying feelings of regret. This feeling can then motivate behavior change if reacted to quickly. In other words, if someone still has the chance to do or undo an act, the instantaneous feeling of regret may be beneficial (Beike et al., 2009). Basically the regret serves as a means of teaching a person to not make the same mistake twice (Beike et al., 2009). Patrick, Lancellotti, and Hagtvedt (2009) found this in relation to consumers who missed an opportunity to purchase an item, experienced regret, which then intensified their intent to change the behavior in the future. Given our scant understanding of regrets in an athletic population, it seems relevant to identify whether actions or inactions are more regretful in this population, as this insight could be used by Sport Psychology Consultants (SPCs) aiming to improve athletes' experiences by using regrets that lead to behavior change and by minimizing regrets that impact well-being.

Positive vs. Negative Impacts

Importantly, linkages may be drawn between regret and life satisfaction scores in older adults (Torges, Stewart, & Miner-Rubino, 2005). Individuals with fewer regrets scored higher on indices of physical health when compared to their counterparts reporting more regrets. In another study, researchers examined regrets in a sample of Dutch females (16-81 years old) and found participants who reported regrets also maintained lower levels of psychological and physical well-being (Dijkstra & Bareld, 2008). Along these same lines, Roese et al., (2009) found associations between regret and anhedonic depression, as well as regret and anxious arousal in a sample of both males and females. Additionally, regret and repetitive thought, termed repetitive regret, was found to be highly predictive of general distress in that group (Roese et al., 2009). Thus, there are possible negative consequences to feeling regret. However a complete lack of regret may not be possible or advantageous.

The existence of regrets may be beneficial if used to modify future behaviors. From a neuroscience perspective, it has been argued that learning is enhanced by intense emotional components; subsequently, regrets may benefit the learning process (Miller, 2009). Beike et al. (2009) suggested that hope should be increased and regrets decreased if people perceive possibilities for change in their future. In other words, regret may be a functional and useful aspect of a healthy learning and developmental process, and may be utilized to emphasize personal growth and control. Individuals' perceptions regarding their ability to control and change an action/behavior is more likely to prompt corrective behavior (Roese & Summerville, 2005). Therefore, how one perceives and what one does with the counterfactual thought is most important. If individuals are able to consider "what may be" instead of "what might have been" they are likely to experience fewer negative effects from their regrets (Boninger, Gleicher & Strathman, 1994). From a SPC's perspective, it may be useful to address these regret-related emotions and behaviors earlier in life (or a career) when individuals have ample opportunity to take responsibility and identify skills and resources they possess to change future behaviors (Bauer, Wrosch & Jobin, 2008; Wrosch & Heckhausen, 2002).

Anticipated versus Experienced Regret

Anticipated regrets have been found to be strongly influential on behavior change (Gilbert, Morewedge, Risen, & Wilson, 2004). In fact, Gilbert et al. (2004) found that people think they will experience regrets more than they actually do, thus the fear of experiencing regret can positively or negatively impact behavior as one may change a behavior to avoid regret or not engage in a behavior for the same reason. According to Gilbert et al. (2004) this fear of regret may not be necessary as their studies found people experienced far less regret than they assumed in advance. With regard to certain behaviors it may be good to recognize that the fear of regret is stronger than the regret; however, that fear may be advantageous when it comes to other unhealthy behaviors. More specifically, Conner, Sandberg, McMillan, and Higgins (2006) found that anticipated regret significantly predicted intentions to smoke, more than attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Higher levels of regret also were associated with lower intentions to smoke.

Within a sport context, Robbins and Stanley (2012) studied regret in two Division I (DI) female collegiate teams. They found that athletes who read and discussed regrets at the start of the season provided fewer weekly regrets compared to their counterparts who did not have access to the regrets of former athletes. This showed the possible benefits of anticipated regrets for changing behaviors during a season. However, given the homogeneous nature of the participants it was suggested that regrets be addressed in a larger, more heterogeneous population, including males and females from a variety of sport teams (Robbins & Stanley, 2013).

Given the inevitable presence of regrets in sport and the identified consequences of such feelings, it is critical to further our understanding about the impact and type of regret among a variety of athletes. To date regrets have only been studied in female team sport participants. Robbins and Stanley (2013) found that out of the 46 former DI field hockey players who participated in the study, 40 experienced regrets, with only three reporting a complete lack of regret. Content analysis yielded six major regret categories, including: (a) team, (b) priorities, (c) communication, (d) role, (e) confidence, and (f) transition. Robbins and Stanley (2012) looked at regrets throughout a competitive season in female DI field hockey and soccer players, again finding the existence of regret in this population. More information is needed to identify if there are more, fewer or different regrets among a variety of team and individual sport athletes before attempting further interventions.

The prevalence and impacts of regrets on behaviors and emotions is well documented. However, the scope and nature of regret in the athletic population is not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to employ a larger and more diverse sample to identify the existence or prevalence of additional categories of regret. Subsequently, researchers were also able to examine whether regrets differed based on sex and/or sport, in addition to actions or inactions.

Method

Participants

The final sample consisted of 172 athletes (103 males; 68 females; 1 unspecified sex) who answered questions related to regrets based on their season. Athletes were recruited from two universities in the Southeast United States. Coaches were initially contacted by the primary investigator regarding the nature of the study and requesting their team participation. Athletes were from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) DI or DII teams and they played on either an individual or team-sport program. More specifically, participating teams included: baseball, basketball, field hockey, soccer, volleyball, track & field/cross country, and golf.

Procedures

Subsequent to receiving university institutional review board (IRB) approval, coaches of each respective team were contacted to request team participation. Interested coaches arranged for teams to meet the investigators in a classroom, locker room, or another closed spaced on their campus. Coaches were not present at the meeting where athletes were informed about the study. Following explanation of the study protocol and purpose, possible participants were asked to sign an informed consent form. Those who returned the signed form were then provided the survey and those who did not sign the consent form were asked to stay seated until their peers were finished to avoid drawing attention to themselves. Participants completed the survey that assessed demographic information (i.e. age, sport, sex, and class standing). No names were collected to ensure confidentiality. To assess regrets, a survey was adapted from previous studies, which utilized open-ended questions (i.e. what, if any, regrets do you have from your collegiate athletic career; what, if any, regrets do you have as a result of this season) and written responses (Robbins & Stanley, 2012; 2013). Participants were asked if they had any regrets in connection to their most recent season. These could be regrets of omission (i.e., things not done, said, or thought) and/or regrets of action (i.e., things that were done, said, or thought). It is also important to note that when examining regrets over a season, behaviors outside of sport may be influential, so participants were instructed to include non-sport experiences that impacted their season. If participants answered "yes" to having regrets, they were asked to elaborate in writing regarding the regret and also what they would do or change if given the option to do it again. This second part was included to ensure the researchers were collecting actual regrets, which are defined as a negative emotion associated with feelings that an action could have been carried out more effectively if alternative choices were made (Zeelenberg, 1999).

Data Analysis

A mixed-method approach was utilized to identify frequencies, descriptions and comparisons between and among different groups. All open-ended responses were initially typed verbatim by the primary investigator into a single document per team. Within each team packet were individual athlete responses. Each individual response was coded with the athlete's age, academic standing, sport and sex. The raw data from all teams yielded 190 pages of data, which were then independently reviewed and coded by two of the investigators.

The researchers read and provided codes to best describe the raw data. Upon completion of the independent review process, the researchers then met to determine consistency and discrepancies between their individual codes. Interpretation began with the finest details of each raw data theme and moved to more generalizable themes (Thompson, 1997). This general process was repeated several times by two of the primary researchers independently and together until distinctive emergent themes were identified from the data. These themes were then grouped into relevant categories on the basis of general characteristics of theme essence (Dutton & Dukerich, 1991).

This process resulted in a codebook containing 31 first order themes. Each code was provided a specific definition and each raw data theme was labeled accordingly. After consensus of all the first order themes, the researchers identified 7 second order themes which subsumed the original themes. These second order themes were: (a) Relationships, (b) Sport behaviors, (c) Health, (d) Cognition, (e) Performance, (f) Life skills, and (g) Control. Finally, all themes were condensed under the most general themes termed Controllable and Uncontrollable, as well as, Inaction and Action. These categories were identified based on existing literature and applied experience. As such regrets were termed Controllable if they related to the person's actions, behavior or thoughts. Uncontrollable regrets related to others' behaviors, team outcomes, or winning and losing. Inaction regrets were those that described actions or behaviors not taken, whereas Action regrets included all regrets related to what participants actually did. Following complete consensus by the two original investigators, a third researcher independently coded the raw data themes. Inter-rater reliability was found to be 89.17%. Although this percentage seems to indicate a high degree of agreement, it does not account for agreements which may have occurred by chance alone. Thus, an appropriate indicator of inter-rater reliability (i.e. kappa statistic) was calculated ([kappa] = 0.77, p < .05) which confirmed a substantial level of agreement regarding the regret themes (Landis & Koch, 1977).

For exploratory purposes, a series of chi-square tests of independence were employed to examine if the proportion of males and females reporting a type of regret was consistent across individual (e.g., cross country) and team sports (e.g., baseball, volleyball). As a result of low numbers for several regret types (e.g. health and body, balance, steroid use, etc.) and thus questionable reliability of the chi-square test, the data were collapsed and analyzed according to second order themes. Additionally, further analyses were run on the most general themes of action versus inaction and controllable versus uncontrollable regrets.

Results

The final sample consisted of 172 participants (see table 1), reporting a total of 1236 regrets ([M.sub.regrets] = 7.20). The vast majority of participants reported at least one regret related to their previous competitive season, with only four participants reporting no regrets. The initial series of chi-square tests of independence revealed no significance (p > .05) between males and females or across individual (e.g., cross country) and team sports (e.g., baseball, volleyball). However, two significant results did emerge: Males on team sport and females on individual sports were more likely to report "eating habit" related regret than their female-team and male-individual counterparts, [X.sup.2] (1, 98)= 7.78,p< .05. The same pattern emerged for "work ethic," with males on team and females on individual sports more likely to report such regrets, [X.sup.2] (1, 127)= 26.04, p < .05. Overall, while in select cases athletes (i.e., team male and individual female) reported more regrets than anticipated, generally it does not appear regrets vary according to sex or sport type.

After collapsing the data into second order themes, four significant findings emerged for health, [X.sup.2] (1, 227) = 9.29, p < .05, performance, [X.sup.2] (1, 165) = 14.01, p < .05, life skills, [X.sup.2] (1, 180) = 7.03,p < .05, and sport behaviors, [X.sup.2] (1, 90) = 5.15, p < .05, respectively. It was the same pattern as before, with male-team athletes and female-individual athletes more likely to report regret in those areas. The original raw data were also collapsed into controllable/uncontrollable and action/inaction categories, yielding four primary analyses. There was a significant chi-square analysis (p < .05) for all of the coded areas. Again, male team athletes and female individual athletes were more likely to report all four types of regrets.

The original data were condensed in some meaningful ways. First, almost all (more than 90%) of the regret categories would be deemed controllable, with only two categories being primarily uncontrollable. Additionally, although there were no significant differences with regard to regrets of actions versus inactions, in some cases, there were mainly inaction regrets. This was evident for: attention to health and body, balance, engage professors, focus, leadership, openness, relationship with coach, and work ethic. In other cases, there were mainly action regrets. This was apparent for: control, emotional control, personal choice, and drinking. Overall, the four most commonly cited themes included: (a) eating, which was mentioned by 55% of athlete; (b) sleep habits, discussed by 51% of athletes; (c) confidence, a regret of 52% of athletes; and (d) work ethic, mentioned by 48% of participants.

More specific qualitative analysis yielded the following results (see figures 1 and 2). Within the controllable category, six second-order themes emerged: (a) Relationships, (b) Sport behaviors, (c) Health, (d) Cognition, (e) Performance, and (f) Life skills. Each of the aforementioned categories contained several first-order themes. The higher order theme, Uncontrollable, was composed of only one second-order termed Outcome and two first-order themes: Personal outcome and Team outcome.

Relationships

The relationship domain was comprised of 5 first order themes all pertaining to athletes' social interactions with others, including: (a) openness, (b) relationship with coach, (c) relationship with teammates, (d) social life, and (e) engaging with professors. The first-order theme, openness, explains regrets related to one's reluctance to: express opinions, say what needed to be said, ask for help, or communicate their emotions effectively. Athletes also regretted not being more sociable, not meeting more people and being "too closed off." Although most athletes regretted a lack of openness, there were two athletes who expressed regrets over trusting others and opening up too much, while two other athletes regretted their closed mindedness.

Three groups of people specifically mentioned in athletes' regrets were teammates, coaches and professors. Some athletes regretted not talking about issues with their coaches as a means of improving their own or their team's performance; whereas others wished they had expressed their feelings to coaches with hopes of changing the coach. For example, one athlete said, I regret "not saying something earlier to our coaches about the lack of passion." Whereas, another athlete stated, I regret "letting my coach say the things he did to me ... extremely rude, hurtful, unprofessional."

Athletes also regretted not being more involved with their teammates. More specifically they expressed regret over not hanging out, getting to know, or incorporating themselves with their team. Although most regrets concerned not being close enough to teammates and coaches, there were athletes who regretted being friends with teammates and trying to have a relationship with their coach. Athletes also mentioned regret over not talking to or meeting with their professors enough. The final sub-theme within the relationships category was social life. Some athletes felt they missed out on life outside sport, whereas, others regretted partying too much, hanging out too late and enjoying it too much.

Sport Behaviors

The theme sport behavior consists of regrets termed: (a) leadership, (b) team player, and (c) role. Compared to the aforementioned relationship theme, sport behaviors included interactions only in sport contexts. For instance, leadership was the most common regret in this category. Interestingly, athletes ranging from freshmen to fifth year seniors regretted not being effective leaders or not accepting a stronger leadership role. They regretted, "not stepping up," "not taking the reins," "not being a vocal leader," "not setting a better example," and "not pushing people hard enough." With regard to the team player theme, most athletes regretted not being a team player, primarily described as putting themselves before the team. For example, "I regret getting upset when we were winning because of personal performance." And, I regret "my attitude after games I did not get playing time I wanted." Two athletes regretted not being effective team players because they did not or could not contribute to the team's outcome resulting from performance issues or injury.

Additionally, athletes expressed regrets over the size of their role, not understanding their role, not committing to their role, or not fulfilling their role. As well, one athlete claimed, "I regret that I was known more [as] the loving fun girl on the team instead of one you admire because of the work I put in." Taken together these regrets reveal athletes' frustrations with their own approach to team related issues. Generally athletes regretted not doing what they should have done or being the athlete they could have been.

Health

The health theme was composed of the following first-order themes: (a) drinking, (b) eating, (c) attention to health and body, (d) sleep habits, and (e) steroids. The two most common regrets surrounded athletes' ineffective eating and sleeping habits. Athletes regretted not eating healthy or eating unhealthy and not getting enough sleep. Drinking behaviors were mentioned by several athletes and others had more all-encompassing regrets over not taking care of their bodies and health. These athletes mentioned regrets concerning their quick return to play following an injury. Although the majority of regrets in this category had to do with not being healthy enough or taking care of oneself, two athletes did regret their decision not to take steroids. As a whole these regrets raise concerns over the health related behaviors of athletes.

Cognitive

Subsumed under the cognitive theme are regrets labeled: (a) approach, (b) attitude,

(c) confidence, (d) focus, (e) control, and (f) emotional control. The most common regret concerned not believing in oneself. This was another regret mentioned by a range of athletes from freshmen through fifth year seniors. The athletes regretted a lack of, or loss of, confidence throughout the season. However, while most athletes explained not being confident, two athletes (1 male/1 female) regretted being too cocky.

Athletes also regretted not controlling their emotions, focus, or attention; in addition to allowing outside factors and people to impact their focus, attitudes and behaviors. They regretted allowing mental distractions to impact their performance and attitude, and their inability to let go of negative thoughts. Specifically, they explained regretting "giving up on certain plays in practice over frustration," "stressing to balance athletics, academics, and college life," and "letting my emotions turn me into someone I'm not." Others regretted, "getting mad at myself when I play bad," "not being able to move past negative things," and "getting caught up in small drama, being easily annoyed or judgmental." Within these themes, athletes explained numerous regrets relating to their inability to let go of a thought or change a negative emotion.

In addition to the intense emotions already discussed, athletes also regretted not taking their sport or school seriously enough, not being positive, not showing more energy and enthusiasm, being too laid back, disrespectful, or just not caring in both the classroom and their athletic venue. They mentioned regrets over "giving up," "not loving what they were doing," or "doing just enough to get by." They regretted "not buying into the program," "not being in tune with my sport," and "not being competitive enough." Interestingly, athletes from every team regretted having a negative attitude.

Performance

Performance regrets included those related to: (a) work ethic, (b) inconsistent performance, and (c) ineffective performance and training. The most common regret overall was not working hard enough in either school or sport. They regretted not studying enough, going to class or putting sufficient effort into their schoolwork. As well, athletes regretted not doing extra, putting in more time or really give 100% to athletics. Fundamentally, most athletes felt they could have done more and should have done more.

Athletes cited regrets over: "not playing or performing well," "stupid decisions on the field," and "completing some workouts, which led to injury." Others regretted performing inconsistently throughout the year. They regretted a lack of organization with regard to schoolwork and a lack of commitment related to physical training. Others explained, "not preparing mentally for every game," "being lazy in transition," and "not going to do more 1-1 with coaches outside of practice." Although most athletes regretted their inactions, there was one participant who regretted studying too much. This again provides evidence that both actions and inactions incite feelings of regret.

Life Skills

The final controllable theme of life skills contained the following seven first-order themes: (a) priorities, (b) procrastination, (c) personal choices, (d) balance, (e) handling transition, (f) time management, and (g) school and course selection. The majority of regrets under life skills pertained to time management, procrastination, priorities and personal choices. These regrets concern perceived "wasted time" in a variety of contexts. For example, one athlete said, "I regret pulling all-nighters because of procrastination." Many athletes regretted what they actually prioritized during the year, although they differed with regard to what was later deemed most important, with the majority identifying school and sport. More specifically they said, "I regret going out too much and not focusing on school work," and "I regret putting school to the bottom of the list." Whereas other said, "I regret "allowing distractions to take precedence over ball" and "running became my last [priority]. Academics was a clear first."

With regard to life outside of sport, there were various regrets. Whereas some athletes regretted a lack of balance in their lives (i.e. engaging in activities outside of sport), others regretted their decisions when they were not playing. More specifically one athlete said, "1 regret not taking a step back and trying to do other things to make me happy." Another athlete claimed, "I regret that I wasted opportunities to really enjoy the cultural/social college life." While others regretted their "stupid decisions," which included: "having unprotected sex," "doing something with this one guy," "getting back together with an ex-boyfriend," "sleeping with my head in the freezer," and "smoking marijuana, fights, punching a steel door, and breaking my hand." Additional life skill regrets were much more specific to their personal life choices, with athletes regretting University selection decisions. Although only a few athletes mentioned transfer regrets, there was one who regretted the timing of her transfer to the school, whereas others regretted not transferring out when they had the chance.

Taken together, the majority of aforementioned regrets leave room for change and growth. Athletes can learn to control their attitudes and modify their actions and inactions in future seasons. The regrets, if addressed early and often, could serve as reminders of what to do and what not to do in the future, thus leaving athletes with fewer experienced regrets. Although they cannot undo what was done in the past; all the behaviors, thoughts and inactions were within their control at the time they made their decision.

Outcome

Regrets related to outcome consisted of both personal outcomes and team outcomes (see figure 2). These regrets specifically refer to athletes' dissatisfaction with their win/ loss record, final grades, ineligibility, injury or any other unchangeable end result. Personal outcomes included not getting good grades, getting in trouble, making errors, getting injured, gaining weight, or not scoring more. Team outcomes related to the team's ultimate performance, teammates not getting along, or other team related behaviors or attitudes. As a whole these regrets are all uncontrollable because they refer specifically to an end result or other person. Whereas the previous regrets were caused by behaviors or attitudes that could ultimately be changed, these are situations involving an external variable. Still, athletes may try to change the controllable behaviors and thoughts to put themselves in the best position to gain a more desirable outcome and fewer regrets overall.

Discussion

As evidenced by the sheer number of regrets reported in this study, it appears regrets may be rather pervasive in sport. In addition to the quantity of regrets expressed by athletes, there also was a wide variety of factors that influenced regret feelings, thus expanding domains of regret derived from previous studies (Robbins & Stanley, 2012; 2013). Athletes in the current study revealed both controllable and uncontrollable regrets. The majority appeared controllable in nature, which is of critical importance when addressing the possibility for change. That is, regrets that appear controllable may be employed in behavior modification efforts.

The current study aimed to further our understanding of regrets and identify if differences exist with regard to expressed regrets of a diverse group of athletes. No significant differences were found with regard to sex or team and individual sport, instead, commonalities were found in experienced regrets. The most common regrets included: (a) eating, (b) sleep habits, (c) confidence, and (d) work ethic, with approximately 50% of participants mentioning these categories. As such, the researchers concluded these to be important regrets requiring attention with a collegiate athlete population and topics SPCs could discuss with athletes to incite behavior modifications aimed at minimizing future regrets.

The number of athletes who regretted not eating healthy or eating unhealthy confirms the relevance of this topic, yet addressing and assessing nutritional needs of athletes can be complicated. In addition to a general lack of understanding concerning what is needed for each individual, comes the lack of willingness on the part of the athlete to take care of his or her diet. Shriver, Betts, and Wollenberg (2013) found in female collegiate athletes that energy and carbohydrate intakes were below the minimum recommendations and 75% of participants consumed less than the required carbohydrates to support their training. Additionally, only a few of the participants monitored their hydration, which could significantly impact athletic performance.

The current study found that both male and female athletes are aware of their poor dietary behaviors and they regret not taking more care to eat properly. This is clearly a behavior that is in athletes' control, thus it is necessary to identify barriers that impede positive eating habits and initiate programs or plans to improve eating choices. SPCs could use the findings from this study to stimulate discussion regarding eating habits among their athletes. Given the sensitive nature of the topic, it is imperative that one find a delicate, yet effective way of introducing the conversation. Stating that 55% of athletes in a previous study regretted their eating habits may be a powerful and convincing foundation for individual and or team behavior changes relating to eating habits.

The results regarding sleep related regrets are also relevant, as lack of sleep has been found to be responsible for major disasters and loss of productivity in the general population (Bonnet, 2005). In fact, insufficient sleep can lead to fatigue, irritability, concentration difficulties, and health related problems (Bonnet, 2005; Wells & Vaughn, 2012). It has been said that athletes, likely more than the average person, require sleep to perform optimally (Davenne, 2009). There are intense daily demands on student-athletes' minds and bodies to perform in the classroom and on the field. This increases the importance of effective focus and memory if athletes hope to achieve success. However, both focus and memory are negatively influenced by a lack of sleep (Diekelmann, Wilhelm, & Born, 2009; Ficca & Salzarulo, 2004). As such, recent studies have identified a lack of sleep as a contributing factor towards poor academic performance in undergraduate students (Gomes, Tavares, & Azevedo, 2011).

Out of the 176 participants in the current study, 95 regretted not getting enough sleep or staying up too late. Given the possible detriments this behavior could have on both athletic and academic performance, in addition to, overall mood and focus, it seems obvious that this behavior requires greater attention. Although many athletes expressed they would change this behavior by getting to sleep earlier, doing work in advance, and wasting less time, it is critical that these athletes create realistic plans for enacting this behavior change provided their busy schedules, numerous obligations, and possible distractions. Sleep is a complicated phenomenon not easily changed and not the same for everyone, as numerous factors impair sleep including, but not limited to: temperature, inconsistent schedules, and stress (Venter, 2012). As such, SPCs could use these findings to encourage discussion and planning among their athletes to help them avoid this regret. Rather than lecturing athletes on the need for sleep, they can explain the regrets of the athletes in this study and then help their athletes identify reasons for their current sleep schedule and realistic modifications to their daily schedules to ensure more effective sleep habits throughout their season.

Another regret identified by more than half of the participants was a lack of confidence. Confidence is a common term in athletics, viewed by many as a critical component of optimal performance. According to Vealey, Hayashi, Gamer-Homan, and Giacobbi (1998) athletes use one or more of the following nine sources for confidence: (a) mastery, (b) demonstration of ability, (c) physical/mental preparation, (d) physical self-presentation, (e) social support, (f) coaches' leadership, (g) vicarious experience, (h) environmental comfort, and (i) situational favorableness. Although all of these sources have been utilized by athletes, ideal sources of confidence are those that are within athletes' control. Sport psychology practitioners may employ a "regret aversion" approach in building self-confidence through mental skills training.

If athletes from the current study are representative of collegiate athletes nationally, then SPCs can be a great asset as many of their techniques are aimed at helping athletes increase confidence. They can help athletes shift their focus from what they cannot or did not do, to what they can do and will do, by helping them identify and be proud of their daily efforts to achieve their outcome rather than merely focusing on the outcome. Throughout the season SPCs can help athletes minimize regrets by shifting their attitude and focus, which may ultimately impact their work-ethic as well.

Nearly half of the athletes in the current study regretted not working hard enough. Work ethic has been described as one of the "intangibles" coaches look for when recruiting athletes (Flett, Gould, Paule, & Schneider, 2010). Additionally, work ethic has been identified as a source of expectancy information coaches use to evaluate athletes (Solomon & Rhea, 2008). As such, athletes likely hear about their work ethic throughout the season, possibly stimulating their ultimate regrets once season ends. Participants in the current study explained regrets resulting from a lack of effort in both school and sport. Given the likelihood that they were reprimanded by coaches and earning lower than expected grades throughout the season if they truly were not working hard, it begs the question; why did they not experience regrets earlier? Additionally, are these regrets substantiated or unrealistic? Are athletes looking back and judging themselves on a true lack of effort or are they just unsatisfied with the outcome and hoping they can do more as a means for self-enhancement. Feeney, Gardiner, Johnston, Jones, and McEvoy (2005) explain that revealing regrets regarding inactions can make people feel better as they can still look back and say, if I had done more, the results would have been different. Regardless of why athletes revealed their regrets, the ultimate challenge is still getting them to modify their actions, thoughts and behaviors to ensure fewer regrets in their future. Again, a SPC can work with athletes on identifying and measuring their work-ethic throughout the season to ensure regret is not experienced only after the possibility for change is lost.

Taken together, the current study identified numerous regrets athletes expressed at the culmination of their season. It is naive to assume we could avoid all regrets, but quite realistic to believe that some regrets could be bypassed. People will always make some mistakes and wonder whether an alternate decision would have led to a better outcome; however, we may be able to encourage people to think about their actions and inactions more fully in the present to avoid regretting as many actions and inactions in the future. Many decisions that lead to later regrets are made without appropriate focus, planning or attention, which can all be addressed with the aims of improving behaviors including, but not limited to diet, sleep, work ethic, and confidence.

Limitations and Future Research

While the current study offered a wealth of information related to regret in sport, as a whole, research on athletes and regret is still in its infancy. More work is needed with larger and more diverse populations to understand regrets athletes possess over a season, if they change throughout a season, and if they differ based on specific athlete characteristics. Additionally, further examination of behaviors or actions currently being used by athletes to minimize or combat their own regret feelings would help to reveal existing effective or ineffective methods.

The current study was able to identify areas of importance based on a fairly large number of athletes; yet the sample was skewed toward male responses, with 103 male participants compared to only 68 female participants. Additionally, baseball and track and cross-country were more represented than other sports, and still no data has been collected on regrets in sports such as football, tennis, swimming or ice hockey.

Themes identified through this study did corroborate findings of previous studies (Robbins & Stanley, 2012, 2013); still, future studies should address this topic among different cultures, age groups, levels of sport, in addition to a greater variety of sport types. As well, more in-depth studies on smaller population can be collected to gain a more complete understanding of these regret feelings, and athletes' desires and willingness to change behaviors with the goal of minimizing regrets in their future. It also would be important to identify if athletes recognize their omissions or actions during the season itself or only after reflection upon season's end.

Although there were limitations, the current findings still provide a useful foundation for future studies and for applied interventions with current athletes. Coaches and SPCs could introduce the categories of regret mentioned by these athletes at the start of the season and throughout the season to instigate conversation regarding possible regrets and encourage their athletes to contemplate their decisions more fully in an attempt at minimizing their own future regrets. The goal for future researchers and practitioners should be aimed at helping athletes utilize anticipated regrets and minimize experienced regrets to enhance their well-being, enjoyment and ultimate athletic performance.

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Jamie E. Robbins

West Chester University of Pennsylvania

Leilani Madrigal

University of Nebraska

Christopher T. Stanley

Florida Gulf Coast University

Address correspondence to: Jamie Robbins, Department of Kinesiology, West Chester University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, PA 19383. E-mail: jrobbins@wcupa.edu

Table 1
Demographic Information for Participants

Sport          Division   Sex           Class Standing

                                RSF   Fr   So   Ju   S   5th

Baseball          I        M     5    6    2    7    6    2
Baseball          II       M     1    8    7    8    5    2
Basketball        I        M     0    9    2    1    0    0
Basketball        II       M     0    2    1    3    0    0
Track/CC          I        M     2    6    3    9    5    0
Track/CC          I        F     2    8    4    7    0    1
F. Hockey         I        F     0    6    2    5    0    0
Volleyball        II       F     0    2    3    1    0    0
Golf              I        F     1    2    3    2    1    0
Soccer            I        F     1    3    4    8    1    1

Sport          Ethnicity/Race

               C    AA   H/L   Multi

Baseball       24   1     1      2
Baseball       21   6     2      2
Basketball     4    7     0      1
Basketball     0    6     0      0
Track/CC       22   2     0      0
Track/CC       16   4     1      1
F. Hockey      13   0     0      0
Volleyball     1    4     1      0
Golf           8    1     0      0
Soccer         17   1     0      0

Note. Three athletes did not provide demographic data
related to sex, class or ethnicity. RSF=red-shirt freshman,
Fr=freshman, So=sophomore, Ju=junior, S=senior, 5th=5th year
senior, C=Caucasian,

AA=African American, H/L=Hispanic/Latino(a), Multi=multiple
ethnicities.