INTRODUCTION

CLIL education and other forms of bilingual education have existed for some time (for a comprehensive review and comparison of the many different forms of bilingual education see Baker & Wright, 2017). CLIL is primarily distinguished from other forms of bilingual education by being a model used for additional language learning in which there is no minimum time specified for learning through the target language. Schools can therefore implement CLIL to varying extents, from one subject area (or Key Learning Area- KLA) through to a whole day or multiple days per week. Most research on CLIL programs comes from the United Kingdom and European contexts. Frameworks have been developed which describe CLIL pedagogy (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010), but teachers working with us found these were insufficient to guide the practice they were undertaking in their school contexts.

Research exists on immersion contexts in Canada and USA, but much of that research has taken place either with secondary learners, or in primary schools which offer full or partial immersion: contexts which can be much more extensive in terms of time on task than the CLIL model we explore here. Little research has offered teachers a practical idea of how a CLIL pedagogy differs either from accomplished teaching of primary school students in general or from teaching in other languages classrooms.

We have found in our research in schools in NSW that teachers crave a more tangible and specific pedagogical model to illustrate what they do, which enables them to speak about their work at a pedagogical level. The teachers in the NSW programs knew, for example, about the 4Cs (Coyle, Marsh & Hood, 2010) frame, which indicates how Content, Communication, Cognition and Culture underpin what takes place in CLIL classrooms (see the following section on prior literature for more detail) However teachers found it difficult to apply this and other existing frameworks and sought some specificity about the types of interactions they use in the classroom to move between the different requirements of a CLIL classroom.

We draw on data from classroom video footage to analyse the discourse and interactions of the classroom to propose a pedagogical model that outlines how CLIL pedagogy combines the use and learning of two languages alongside content learning. We also signal where the pedagogy reflects notions of accomplished teaching in primary schools and where it offers something unique to a CLIL setting. We argue that the key distinguishing aspects of accomplished primary pedagogy and accomplished CLIL pedagogy is in the cycle of learning in the classroom and the in-flight changes employed by teachers as they integrate and embed multiple semiotics and content into their interaction with the students through two languages. The CLIL difference can be seen in the need to move between language 1, language 2, subject content and classroom management seamlessly. We argue that translanguaging is used in these contexts rather than code-switching, because the movement is more complex than purely the teacher's binary movement between two languages. The discourse flow can be either from language to language and back again, use of paralinguistics to support communication, or a combination of the two between and across both languages, with pedagogical reasons (e.g., scaffolding comprehension, behaviour management, emphasis) as the basis of moving between languages.

We propose a pedagogical model that outlines how CLIL pedagogy combines the teaching/learning and use of two languages alongside content teaching/learning. In so doing we also highlight the unique aspects of the pedagogy that make this teaching CLIL rather than simply emulating accomplished primary education. We note that the teachers in these classrooms have developed their pedagogical practice to respond to real-life challenges of their particular contexts. The programs were initially set up with the simple instruction that they were to be "bilingual programs". It is through their implementation that a CLIL model has emerged within classrooms.

The guidance and instruction provided to the teachers in how to teach "bilingually" was extremely limited, and higher-level guidance for teachers on the wide variation possible within that term was not initially provided (Baker & Wright, 2017). We acknowledge that one of the key factors in this context is that the teachers were given no background understanding or training in the many models of bilingual education available, and therefore their pedagogical practice has emerged as an approach developed in the field, building upon their notions of accomplished teaching and pedagogical practice more generally. It has been through our research with them that they have encountered and identified with CLIL as a pedagogical framework (Fielding & Harbon, 2014), and so their practice has developed in response to their needs rather than developed using the guidance of existing CLIL frames. We believe, that the development of these programs, which now have many similarities to other CLIL programs (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010), can offer insight into the specific pedagogical practices taking place in the CLIL classroom. We have found in exploring these classrooms that the essence of the pedagogy is framed through the teacher interaction and their fast-paced switches between language, content and process, utilising translanguaging as a key communicative tool.

BACKGROUND LITERATURE

What is accomplished primary pedagogy?

Siraj and Taggart (2014, p.6) have indicated that "there are numerous definitions of pedagogy and much time has been devoted to debating their subtleties". At various times pedagogy has been referred to as a science, an art, and also more broadly as any and all decision-making that a teacher undertakes (Marzano, 2017; Siraj & Taggart, 2014), Debates continue around the meaning of the term. In this article we use pedagogy to refer to the decision-making and practice of teaching as undertaken by the teachers we observed. As the teachers are in a primary school setting, we start from an understanding of accomplished practice in primary teaching and then focus upon what accomplished practice in a CLIL setting might involve. Prior studies use a variety of terms such as "best practice", and "effective practice", but we prefer to use the term accomplished to align with the accomplished teaching of languages and cultures developed in Australia (AFMLTA, 2005).

Siraj and Taggart (2014, pp. 6-12) in their extensive longitudinal study of primary pedagogy have indicated that accomplished practice includes:

* teacher organisational skills enabling a good pace in class

* clearly shared objectives between teacher and student

* good behaviour management

* collaborative learning

* explicit cross-curricular linking

* dialogic teaching and learning (interactive discourse about learning)

* evaluative feedback

* use of 'plenaries' within lessons.

Their research with a larger group of academics scopes elements which add affective dimensions and a wholistic approach to accomplished teaching practices:

* (meaningful) homework

* (positive) classroom climate

* personalised teaching (and learning), where teachers react to students' individual needs

* assessment for learning.

This prior work results in a comprehensive set of elements, which, it is argued, add up to accomplished practice (Siraj-Blatchford, Shepherd, Melhuish, Taggart, Sammons and Sylva, 2010). We would see these elements as part of accomplished practice in any primary classroom, including a CLIL program classroom.

The Five Standards of Effective Pedagogy (Tharp, Estrada, Dalton and Yameuchi, 2000) have been developed by Tharp et al. (2000) as key factors leading to learning success for all students regardless of background and language. These are:

* joint productive activity

* language development

* contextualisation

* challenging activities

* instructional conversation.

We would therefore argue that any CLIL pedagogy would involve within it elements of this list of characteristics of effective primary pedagogies, but also that there are specific elements which set CLIL aside from general classroom practice.

Prior pedagogical work in CLIL/ bilingual pedagogy:

Bilingual education in its many forms comprises common elements, such as teachers with a competence in two languages, and use of a language other than the language commonly used by class participants to teach and learn content areas such as geography, history, maths or science. CLIL has evolved as one form of bilingual education pedagogy likened to immersion (Cenoz, Genesee and Gorter, 2014). CLIL has distinct characteristics, primarily the lack of a prescribed quantity of time to be spent in the new language of learning per week, In addition, the contexts in which CLIL takes places tend to be additive language environments, although the multilingual nature of citizens in countries like Australia mean that the boundaries between previously distinct education models now need to be merged, and more complex models which incorporate notions such as a translanguaging pedagogy need to be developed, Coyle, Marsh and Hood (2010) use the 4Cs Framework to indicate their understanding of how language and content learning should be integrated within a CLIL pedagogy. They indicate that there arefour key components to a CLIL pedagogy: Content, Communication, Cognition and Culture. They suggest that all four must be interlinked, taking into account the specific overarching context in which learning takes place. They argue that effective CLIL pedagogy encompasses these four Cs within their context through:

* progression in knowledge, skills and understanding of the content

* engagement in associated cognitive processing

* interaction in the communicative context

* development of appropriate language knowledge and skills

* acquisition of a deepening intercultural awareness (Coyle et al, 2010, p.41).

They also refer to Cummins' well-known Matrix which indicates the consideration required in bilingual learning settings of cognitive and linguistic demands to ensure that learning is both linguistically and cognitively appropriate for learners (Cummins, 1984).

In our experience, while such theoretical constructs are available to teachers working in CLIL settings, teachers themselves still are not clear about what their practice might look like in the classroom in order that they might use a checklist to guide their pedagogy. Teachers seek a clearer indication of what their work might look like. In addition, the CLIL 4Cs does not allow for movement between languages which we know works effectively within the classrooms we have studied. We therefore feel there is a need to incorporate further elements into a CLIL pedagogy to allow for the reality of these complex classrooms. Fa this reason, elements of a translanguaging pedagogy (Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Garcia, 2009; Sayer, 2012) need to be incorporated into a CLIL pedagogy.

TRANSLANGUAGING AS PEDAGOGY

Theoretical exploration of how bilingual pedagogy is enacted, has increasingly argued that bilingual pedagogy needs to move away from monolingual norms and the separation of languages. Creese and Blackledge (2010, p.112) use Garcia's term "translanguaging" and the long-established term "heteroglossia" to describe how they see bilingual pedagogy being enacted according to bilingual norms in what they term "flexible bilingualism". Creese and Blackledge (2010, pp. 112-113) identify seven key elements to a flexible bilingual pedagogy:

1) the use of bilingual label quests, repetition and translation across languages

2) the ability to engage audiences through translanguaging and heteroglossia

3) the use of student translanguaging to establish identity positions both oppositional and encompassing of institutional values

4) recognition that languages do not fit into bounded entities and that all languages are needed for meanings to be conveyed and negotiated

5) endorsement of simultaneous literacies and languages to keep the pedagogic task moving

6) recognition that teachers and students skilfully use their languages for different functional goals such as narration and explanation

7) use of translanguaging for annotating texts, providing greater access to the curriculum, and lesson accomplishment.

Creese and Blackledge (2010) conclude that bilingual pedagogy needs to legitimise the movement between languages to "ease the burden of guilt" (p.113) which teachers experience when translanguaging in contexts where monolingual expectations of language separation prevail. Within languages education theorisation, an increasing understanding of a multilingual turn has developed (Conteh & Meier, 2014; Hajek & Slaughter, 2015; May, 2014), However, this has yet to impact in any significant manner upon the expectations of the wider community including teachersfrom non-language teaching backgrounds.

Following a similar theoretical underpinning to Creese and Blackledge, Sayer (2012) explores the use of translanguaging as a pedagogical tool in bilingual classrooms in Texas. He argues that although his research initially intended to count the language functions that were taking place in each language in the classroom, by undertaking a translanguaging approach he observed that the focus needed to be less upon the "language per se and more concerned with examining how bilinguals make sense of things through language" (Sayer, 2012, p84). He insists that within this approach the bilingual discourse practices need to be seen within their social order and therefore he re-emphasises the approach of Creese and Blackledge using language ecology (Kramsch & Whiteside, 2008) as the approach to study. Sayer (2012) identifies three forms of translanguaging:

1) teaching standard languagethrough the vernacular

2) using the vernacular to mediate academic content

3) imparting lessons that instil ethnolinguistic consciousness and pride.

We can see through Sayer's (2012) study that the users of the translanguaging pedagogy are not just teachers, and that students, too, enact the pedagogy. We see the important crossover between translanguaging pedagogy and the use of language in CLIL classrooms. We see elements of translanguaging as pedagogy in this context in the following ways:

* repetition

* translation (in limited amounts)

* simultaneous literacies and languages

* teacher and students using both languages to achieve different goals.

We are brought to the point of realising a place for the use of English (as the dominant language in our context) as well as the target language within a CLIL pedagogy.

There is very little empirical research exploring the spoken language use of teachers in bilingual settings. Lorenzo (2008) explored teachers' use of instructional discourse in bilingual settings by exploring the reading texts used by teachers in CLIL settings. He examined how the texts were adjusted by the teachers to make them comprehensible. Lorenzo argued that the use of CLIL as a pedagogy had "outpaced" the development of research and good practice (2008). We can see that in the case of teacher talk in the classroom this may still be true. We can also argue that as policy-makers establish top-down policy mandates to introduce "bilingual" or CLIL programs, they do so without knowledge or understanding of the necessary training for teachers to know how to change their teaching. Lorenzo (2008) explores how teachers use three different strategies;

* simplification using processes such as reducing the number of words per sentence or restricting the range of vocabulary

* elaboration - such as paraphrasing, repetition, apposition

* rediscursification - more use of questioning, more explicit use of markers of evaluation, attitude, hedging, shortening of secondary ideas, use of supporting text such as footnotes, graphs, visual tools, glossaries, pre-tasks.

Lorenzo (2008) concludes that teachers need to be taught explicitly how to use language in the bilingual classroom, what language to use, and need specific development on how to modify input in optimal ways for their classroom. While Lorenzo's workfocussed upon reading texts, we would argue that many of the strategies used by teachers in adapting written text for their learners are similar in nature to the adaptations of their teacher talk in the classroom within a CLIL pedagogy, in particular the use of paraphrasing, repetition and rediscursification. Such strategies need to be taught through professional education and through sharing within a community of practice.

Lewis, Jones and Baker (2012) cite Estyn (2002) who indicated that the best uses of translanguaging between Welsh and English were:

* speaking and listening - listen in one language and give the gist in another; express information in a formal register through switches

* reading - use sources in both languages and summarise the main points orally or in writing in one language; read a text in one language and complete tasks based on it in another language

* writing - communicate information that has been read or heard in one language in writing in the other language; summarise information heard in one language accurately in another language.

This model has similarities to a typology described by Garcia (2009) which includes the previewing of content in one language, the conduct of the task in the target language and the reviewing of the task in the first (or both) language(s). Lewis, Jones and Baker (2012) identify three types of translanguaging - classroom translanguaging: that which takes place in the classroom and is planned and/or serendipitous with a pedagogic emphasis;

* universal - translanguaging: with cognitive, contextual and cultural aspects; and

* neurolinguistic translanguaging: which explores the brain activity when both languages are activated.

For our study we are concerned with the classroom translanguaging and we believe there is a place for this within the frame of a CLIL pedagogy. The pedagogical framework we discuss in this paper, the frame we have seen embodied in the four NSW school contexts, is outlined in the following section.

FRAMEWORK

Our study is framed by accomplished primary classroom pedagogy with a focus on the language-related elements which define a CLIL pedagogy.

The Five standards of Effective Pedagogy (Tharp, Estrada, Dalton and Yameuchi, 2000) are:

* joint productive activity

* language development

* contextualisation

* challenging activities

* instructional conversation.

All five are seen in successful primary classrooms, but within a CLIL classroom we argue that there are elements within the Language Development strand of the 5 standards and in the target language. Specifically, Language Development is broken down into four sub-strands:

* modelling, eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning and praising

* connecting language with literacy

* using the first/dominant and second/additional languages for clarification

* in-flight changes.

It is these four sub-strands that we believe indicate how a CLL classroom contains elements of difference from a primary classroom in a non-CLIL setting, and also differences to a non-CLIL languages program.

These elements we argue, show evidence of the grounded nature of the development of this CLIL pedagogy. We further explain the notion of the in-flight changes to be:

* between language learning and content learning

* between Korean/Indonesian/Chinese/Japanese and English

* between different modes of language and the process of learning and/or classroom management.

These changes can also be seen through the following strategies taken from the sub-strands of the five standards and incorporating the use of translanguaging:

* restating/ probing for further clarification

* paralinguistics (e.g. gestures, tone, volume, speed of speech)

* connecting language with reading or writing

* translanguaging

* embedding of culture.

It is through these five elements that we see CLIL pedagogy being enacted in the four sets of classrooms we studied. We see the key to the pedagogy to be within the in-flight changes and teachers' guidance of students through a cycle of learning which involves multiple semiotic resources. This means the teachers use gestures, a multitude of resources, restating, in-flight changes and paralinguistics to scaffold the language and content messages they are delivering to their students. The teachers use body language to convey meaning and embed multiple layers of content into their interactions. The students thus participate in a cycle of learning that engages them with content through the language in a variety of ways within a short space of time.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The data presented here were collected from four schools in NSW, Australia. In 2009 the four schools had been selected to participate in a pilot program introducing a bilingual style of language learning. Each school was allocated one of four government-identified "priority languages" at the point of introduction of the program - Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese and Korean - and began implementing a program from 2010, beginning with the Kindergarten and Year 1 class and progressing through to Year 6 (the final year of primary school in NSW). At the start of the program the teachers were simply advised to implement a bilingual program with the only requirement being five hours of language learning to be integrated with subject-matter teaching each week. Our first piece of research in the schools identified that the model being followed in each case could be most closely aligned with a CLIL style of bilingual education (Fielding & Harbon, 2014). Data collected for this article comprised the classroom discourse and physical activity captured on video during observations at each of the four schools in 2013/2014.

In order to explore the nature of the pedagogies developing and unfolding in these four school contexts, we sought to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the nature of the CLIL teaching in these schools that allows for language development alongside content learning?

2. What is the difference between CLIL pedagogy and accomplished teaching in a primary monolingual context?

We gathered data in the form of video footage of the four school classrooms. These videos were recorded after we received University ethics permissions and NSW Department of Education and Communities SERAP (ethics) approval to film the classroom interaction. The classroom footage was then transcribed for the verbal interaction in each of the languages: Chinese (Mandarin), Indonesian, Japanese and Korean. Native speakers of each language undertook the transcription, and also translated the transcripts into English. Alongside the verbal transcription, annotations were allocated to the interaction depicting the physical interaction taking place alongside the verbal interaction indicating body language, gestures, facial expressions, unspoken responses and questions and any other physical elements of the classroom interaction.

These transcripts and the original videos were then used as the data sources to develop themes underpinning the pedagogies used by each teacher. Using the "Five Standards" as a basis for thematic coding, the transcripts and videos were re-examined for their indications of:

* in-flight changes

* between language learning and content learning

* between Korean/Indonesian/Chinese/Japanese and English

* between different modes of language and the process of learning and/or classroom management

* restating

* probing for further clarification

* paralinguistics

* connecting language with reading or writing

* translanguaging/ code-switching

* embedding of culture.

Findings

Our findings are discussed in relation to the framework depicted above and in line with the research questions.

1. What is the nature of the CLIL teaching in these four schools that allows fa language development alongside content learning?

The nature of CLIL teaching is shown through the in-flight changes we have observed across the four schools.

In all examples that follow, the transcription is presented within the columns thus:

Speaker  Transcript  English translation  Paralinguistic notes
                                          (where applicable)

In-flight changes can be seen broadly in the following examples;

Example 1: Korean
In this example students in Year 1 are learning about which foods need
to be kept in the fridge. The in-flight changes can be seen between the
content learning about which foods must be kept in the fridge and the
language learning of food vocabulary. The teacher also moves between
Korean and English to emphasise a key point.

Teacher   gwa il
Student   gwa il
Teacher   gwa il, gwa il deureoga X haeboseyo
Student   uyu
Teacher   uyudo deureogaji?
Teacher   (English) We put food in the fridge don't we?
Teacher   eum sik
Students  eum sik
Teacher   eumsikeul yeojjokega
Teacher   igeoseul mandeulgeo

Teacher   (fruit)
Student   (fruit)
Teacher   (fruit, fruit goes inside. X you try)
Student   (milk)
Teacher   (milk goes inside too doesn't it?
Teacher   We put food in the fridge don't we?
Teacher   (food)
Students  (food)
Teacher   (the food goes on this side)
Teacher   (we're going to make this)

Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Students
Teacher   Shows on a model
Teacher   Shows a paper fridge they will make

Example 2: Japanese
In this example the teacher switches from content instructions, to
classroom management, to English for further management of the task,
then back to Japanese.

Teacher    o arekkusu jyouzu
           ashi
           hai sutanpu
Alanna     Alanna
           ichi ni san
           ichi ni san
           ichi ni san
           ichi ni san
Teacher    sensei chekingu, miteiruyo
           Ethan jyouzu
Teacher    (English) hold your pen properly
Student 2  ichi ni san yon
Teacher    (English) yes they probably do need
           a wash with all the texta on them
           (English) this one especially

Teacher    Oh Alex, very good
           legs
           here a stamp
Alanna     Alanna
           one, two, three
           one, two, three
           one, two, three
           one, two, three
Teacher    I'm checking, I'm looking
           Good work, Ethan
Teacher    hold your pen properly
Student 2  one, two, three, four
Teacher    yes they probably do need a wash
           with all the texta on them
           this one especially

Example 3: Indonesian
In this example the Indonesian teacher makes in-flight changes to
switch to a language focus and back to content.

Teacher  Ya.                            Yes.
         Ok, siapa belum depat?         Ok, who hasn't had a turn?
         Isabel?                        Isabel? Isabel Ayo, coba.
         Isabel. Ayo, cobe
Student
Teacher  Lebih keras, keras, dan besar. louder, louder
         Encang.                        Encang.
         Merayakan.                     To celebrate.
         Waisak.                        Vesak.
Student

Teacher
         Student  Student reads the text
         on the board.
Teacher  Teacher gestures for the student to
         be louder
         Teacher corrects the pronunciation
Student  Student keeps reading the text
Teacher
Teacher  Use body language to facilitate
         students' understanding
         Restating: correct pronunciation
Student

Example 4: Indonesian
In this example, in-flight changes can be seen to switch to a technical
classroom instruction and then switch back to content.

Teacher  Oh, di Indonesia ada Hari Ibu.  Oh, in Indonesia there is
         Ya, Hari Ibu, bagus.            Mother's Day. Yes Mother's
         Ini pena merah. Tidak apa-apa   Day, good.
         oh, tidak apa-apa.              This is red pen. That is ok.
         Callum?                         Oh, that is ok.
         Hari Paskah,                    Callum?
Student  Hari Paskah? Sudah.             Easter.
Teacher  John.                           Easter? We have that already.
         Oh, Zane, diamlah. Maaf?        John.
         Hari ANZAC.                     Oh, Zane, silent please.
Student  Hari ANZAC.                     Sorry?
Teacher  Bagus John.                     ANZAC Day.
                                         ANZAC Day.
                                         Good John.

Teacher
Student
Teacher
          Teacher gestures that she needs  Use body language to replace
          the student to repeat.           complex instruction
Student
Teacher

The in-flight changes occur so quickly:

* for focusing students' attention

* for ensuring comprehension

* for classroom management.

Without close attention to the written transcript of the oral interactions, and close scrutiny of the video footage, the spur-of-the-moment evidences of teachers making decisions to take the class discourse in one way or the other, such translanguaging strategies could be missed using other observation schedules.

2. What is the difference between CLIL pedagogy and accomplished teaching in a primary monolingual context?

The second research question can be answered by our exploration of the language based and translanguaging sub-elements of the in-flight pedagogy. These are shown in the following sections with examples of each element.

The sub-elements of the in-flight pedagogy

To further indicate our findings we show in the following section some examples of classroom interaction, which highlight particular elements of the in-flight pedagogy.

Paralinguistics

The use of paralinguistic strategies can be seen in the following examples:

Example 1: Japanese
In this example the teacher uses body language to indicate physical
instructions,

Teacher            u                      Oops
                   douzo                  Here you are
Student            ariga:ou               thank you
Student(s)
Classroom Teacher  (English)              Oop
Teacher            a Jyacinta             Ah Jacinta
                   Chotto kocchi suwatte  Sit a bit further over to the
                                          side
                   Kocchi
                                          there
                   Tatte tatte
                                          Stand up, stand up
Classroom Teacher  (English)
                   (English)              Ethan move across
Teacher                                   Lachlan where should you
                                          be?
                   Suwatte
                   Douzzo
                                          Sit down
                                          Here you are

Teacher
Student            Takes card walks to toward baskets
Student(s)
                   Trips over Jacinta
Classroom Teacher
Teacher
                   Moves to Jacinta and taps on her
                   arm
                   Move hands up to indicate
                   "stand up"
Classroom Teacher

Teacher            Wave her hand to the left to indicate
                   "Move here"

Teacher
Student
Student(s)
Classroom Teacher
Teacher
                   Use body language to facilitate
                   understanding
                   Use body language to facilitate
                   understand
Classroom Teacher
Teacher            Use body language to replace
                   complex instruction

Example 2: Japanese
In this example the teacher uses body language to indicate classroom
management and instructions.

Teacher      Tsugiwa katakana ikuyo      Next we'll do katakana
             ii?                         Okay?
             Ripiito shinai              We don't repeat

             Ripiito shinai              We don't repeat
             Shiitse                     Shhh

             Ripiito shinai              We don't repeat

Teacher and  Barney Will suwatte chanto  Barney, Will sit properly
Students     song                        song
             a I u e ohayou              a I u e good morning
             ka ki ku ke konnichiwa      ka ki ku ke hello
             sa shi su se soudesune      sa shi su se that's right
             ta chi tsu te tomodachi     ta chi tsu te friend
             na ni nu nonbiri            na ni nu ne carefree
             minnadee utaumashou         Everybody let's sing

             ha hi hu he hokkaido        ha hi hu he hokkaido

Teacher
             Shakes head
             Put her finger on her lips to indicate
             "be quiet"
             Crosses arms making an 'x'
             indicating 'no'
Teacher and
Students
             Palm open and close to represent
             mouth movement - singing
Teacher
             Use body language to facilitate
             students' understanding
             Use body language to facilitate
             students' understanding
             Use body language to facilitate
             students' understanding
Teacher and
Students
             Use body language to facilitate
             students' understanding

Example 3: Japanese
In this example the teacher uses gestures to indicate what she means
and for classroom management.

Teacher   sensei                    I
                                    Will walk around and
          aruite                    check
                                    Ms. Smith will
          cheku suru kara           Walk around and check

          Smith sensei mo           Do you understand
          airuite cheku suru        Yes
                                    Yes, okay whose is this?
          wakatta?
Students  hai                       ah ah shhhh
Teacher   hai jya kore dare?
                                    here, because the pens are
          a ash                     here

          koko pen koko ni arukara

Teacher   Points to herself
          Motions walking using index and
          middle finger
          Points to both eyes

          Motions walking using index and
          middle finger then points to both
          eyes

Students  Holds up laminated sheet of A4
Teacher   paper
          Puts her finger on her lips to indicate
          'be quiet'

Teacher   Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding
          Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding
          Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding

          Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding

Students
Teacher
          Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding
          Use body language to facilitate
          students' understanding

Example 4: Indonesian
In this example the teacher uses gestures to indicate her meaning, and
to assist with student understanding.

Teacher  O. bagus                        Wow, good.
         Siapa senang? Oh, saya juga.    Who's happy? Oh, me too.
         Angkat tangan, Tahlia.          Hand up, Tahlia.
         Zane dan Oscar, diam            Zane, Oscar, silent please.
Student  Dua puluh satu days to          Twenty one days to
Teacher  (inaudible) birthday            (inaudible) birthday
         Ulang tahunnya (inaudible)      (inaudible) birthday...
         O, Tahlia senang sekall.        Wow, Tahlia is very happy
         Ok, bagaimana cuaca hari inii?  Ok, how is the weather
         Hari ini, emm, musim, musim     today?
         apa?                            Today, umm, season, what
         Tahlia, hari ini musim...?      season?
         Pertama hari, musim?            Tahlia, today's season is...?
                                         First day of...?

Teacher
         Teacher puts her hand up to show
         who is happy should put their hand
         up.
Student
Teacher

         The teacher fanned herself with both
         hands to indicate that it's hot

Teacher
         Use body language to replace
         complex construction

Student
Teacher
         Use body language to elicit
         student's answer

Example 5: Chinese
In this example the teacher uses gestures to indicate her meaning, and
to assist with student understanding.

Speaker   Oral Text
Teacher  '3A ban de tongxue, tamen you 20 jige, you
         25 geren, quandui de. Tamen hen bang!
         hen lihai! (... kids asked sth.) dui.
         (English) Last week
         shanggexing qu. Nimen zheyiban yao jiayou!

Speaker  English translation
Teacher  Last week the 3A class had over 20
         pupils, they have 25 in total, they
         have been great, been brilliant, doing
         extremely well. Yes
         Last week, you guys need to carry
         on

Speaker  Paralinguistics
Teacher  Teacher on chair in front of class sitting on floor in
         front of her
         Raises left hand high and points (for emphasis)
         Repeats "last week" in Chinese

CONNECTING LANGUAGE WITH READING AND WRITING

Continuing to answer research question 2, we found teachers also showed evidence of their explicit linking between what they were saying about how to read or write in the language.

Example 1: Japanese

In this example the teacher points to the written word as she says it.

Speaker  Transcript           English translation
Teacher  namae no renshuu wo  practice (writing) names

         shimasu              okay?
         ii?                  okay?
         ii?                  one
         ichi
                              two
         ni
                              three
         san                  four
         yon                  five
         go                   one
         ichi                 two
         ni

Speaker  Paralinguistic notes (where applicable)
Teacher

         Holds up A4 sheet of paper and       Connect language with
         points
         Points to sheet of paper for each
         number

Speaker
Teacher
          reading

Example 2: Japanese

In this example tracing is used to emphasise the written style of
language.

                                              Traces over katakana
Teacher  miteinai      You're not looking
         miteinai      You're not looking
         hai miteinai  Excuse me, you're not
                       looking
Student  Lachlan       Lachlan                Traces over katakana

RESTATING

Further answersto research question 2 include teachers showing howthey use restating (Tharp etal, 2000) as a strategy eitherto emphasise language, to correct language or to ensure understanding.

Example 1: Indonesian

Teacher  Tanggal berapa hari ini? lihat  What date is today?
Student  papan tulis.                    Look at the board.
Teacher
         Satu Desember, dua ribu         December, first, two
         sebelas                         thousand and eleven
         Repeats the student's           Repeats the student's answer
         answer
         Bagus sekali                    Very good
         Oh, ada berapa hari sampai      Oh, how many days to go till
Student  hari Natal? Zane                Christmas? Zane
Teacher  Dua puluh empat                 Twenty four
         Dua puluh empat                 Twenty four

Teacher    Point to the board   Use body language to facilitate
Student                         students' understanding
Teacher
                                Students are silent
Student
Teacher
                                Restate to enhance the acquisition of
                                the correct answers

Example 2: Japanese

In this example the teacher restates a student answer and then uses
that answer to continue the classroom talk.

Student  natsu                       summer
Teacher  natsu, hontou?              summer, really?
                                     That's right, isn't it?
         sou da ne
                                     They said it at the end, didn't
         saigo ni uteta ne? koko ni  they? Here
                                     Yes. Here
         hai, Koko ne                That's right, my favourite is
         sou, boku ga natsu ga       summer
         ichiban suki desu. Ne?

Student
Teacher         Restates
         nods   Use body language to facilitate
                understanding

EMBEDDING CULTURE

Yet another answer to research question 2 was how teachers also showed ways in which their classroom talk had cultural elements embedded within it (Tharp et al, 2000).

Example 1: Indonesian

In this example the teacher models a particular style of dance to
support their talk.

Student  Inaudible Speech           Inaudible Speech
Teacher  Tidak, karena Tari Randai  No, because Randai Dance
         dari Pulau Sumatra, Tari   is from Sumatra, Kecak is
         Kecak dari Pulau Bali      from Bali

Student
Teacher  Teacher gestures Kecak Dance  Use body language to facilitate
         Culture embedded in content   student understanding

TRANSLANGUAGING

Teachers indicated that they moved between languages at different times in their teaching for particular purposes, thus indicating a need for translanguaging (Garcia, 2009) even if used sparingly.

Example 1: Korean

In this example the teacher reiterates a key point in English to a Year
1 class.

Student   uyu                           (milk)
Teacher   uyodo deureogaji?             (milk goes inside too doesn't
Teacher   (English) We put food in the  it)
Students  fridge don't we?              We put food in the fridge
Teacher   eum sik                       don't we?
          eumskeul yeojjokega           (food)
                                          (the food goes on this side)

Student
Teacher
Teacher
Students
Teacher   Shows on a model

Example 2: Indonesian

In this example the teacher switches to include some key words in
English.

Teacher  Dewa, dan dewi, (English)   Dewa, dan dewi, gods and
         gods and goddesses          goddesses

Teacher    Translanguaging

Example 3: Chinese

In this example the teacher uses both languages to restate and
reinforce in relation to classroom management.

Speaker                                      English translation

Teacher  Guolai, Guolai, zheli zuo           Come Come and sit here
Student  (English) He's gone around there    He's gone around there
Teacher  (English) Okay                      Okay
Teacher  Kan laoshikan laoshi                Look at me, look at me
Teacher  (English) Okay Laoshi you qiaokeli  Okay I have chocolate

Speaker  Paralinguistics

Teacher
Student
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher

Example 4: Chinese

In this example the teacher uses both languages for emphasis and
reinforcement

Speaker  Oral Text

Teacher  '3A ban de tongxue, tame nyou 20 jige, you
         25 geren, quandui de. Tamen hen bang! hen
         lihai! (... kids asked sth) dui
         (English) Last week
         shanggexingqu, Nmen zheyban yao]iayoul

Speaker  English translation

Teacher  Last week the 3A class had over 20
         pupils, they have 25 in total, they
         have been great, been brilliant, doing
         extremely well, Yes
         Last week
         Last week, you guys need to carry
         on

Speaker  Paralinguistics

Teacher  Teacher on chair in front of class sitting on floor in
         front of her
         Raises left hand high and points (for emphasis)
         Repeats last week in Chinese

DISCUSSION

We show that the in-flight changes are the key to the CLIL classroom, and the subelements of those in-flight changes are what separates CLIL pedagogy from more standard accomplished teaching. We also believe that the key difference between a CLIL classroom and other languages classrooms in the NSW context is that the teaching of other KLA content comprises the whole of the lesson, every lesson. Most languages classrooms in NSW teach language-as-object and therefore these classrooms most closely resemble a primary classroom with delivery in English (the dominant language). The strategies being used by the teachers might be seen in other languages classrooms but the quantity of KLA content, the speed of changes made by the teacher, and the hidden and embedded nature of language learning, in our opinion, distinguish these classrooms from other languages classrooms. The classroom transcripts and analysis of the physical interaction in the classrooms clearly show in-flight changes such as the switching between the learning of content to a focus upon language, switching between the target language and English (in limited amounts) and switching between the process of learning and classroom management. Sometimes these switches are combined and show both a switch in focus and a switch in language simultaneously. A teacher in any classroom has to make an abundance of decisions in a short space of time. Indeed, early scholarship on the topic of teaching focused on teacher decision making as a basic skill of teaching Hunter,1979; Shavelson, 1973) ). Calderhead (1981)- albeit at a distance now in time-argued that teachers, rather than making decisions, responded in more automated ways to particular cues in the classroom. Gill and Hoffman (2009) subsequently related teacher decision-making to teacher beliefs. Regardless of the technicalities of teacher choices in the classroom, the CLIL setting adds a further layer to the teacher's pedagogical choices and knowledge development due to the classroom requirements of teaching content through language. These teachers have the added complexity of doing everything the primary teacher does through a new language. Their work is measured against KLA outcomes rather than language outcomes and this distinguishes these classrooms from other language-asobject classrooms. The teachers assess and report on KLA learning, with language learning being treated as a by-product of this environment. The teacher has in mind both language and content as they plan and deliver their teaching, but they must ensure that their students achieve the outcomes in the KLA before they return to their main classroom and class teacher, who does not repeat or translate any content.

This means that teacher decision-making within the CLIL classroom involves deciding which language to use, how, and in which ways, how to speak about the subject content in that language and how to balance the set of outcomes they need to achieve through the new language. The teacher must decide how and when to emphasise language and how and when to overlook language to focus on content. They must also decide when a focus on language is imperative in order to achieve the content outcomes. However the content outcomes are at the heart of the measured learning within an educational context with a strong focus upon outcomes and accountability (please see our forthcoming work on assessment within these contexts).

Yet in our observations, teachers appear to seamlessly move between the different demands of their CLIL classroom, thus depicting the in-flight nature of their pedagogy through the apparently smooth manoeuvre between different foci of content, language and processes of learning. How they do so is important to understand. We believe that there are a number of key elements within this in-flight pedagogy which appear to make it more specifically CLIL rather than simply accomplished practice in primary teaching, or accomplished languages teaching. The linguistic elements and the notion of translanguaging specifically make the pedagogy different to another primary classroom. The focus upon content outcomes distinguishes it from other languages classrooms. The teachers also exhibit a range of pedagogical strategies which emulate accomplished teaching at primary level but which are particularly essential to the CLIL context and enhance understanding while facilitating the in-flight changes.

We believe that the elements common to all accomplished teaching include:

Element 1: The pedagogy involves 3D activities

When teaching new content, teachers frequently use 3D means to convey the conceptual knowledge to students in order not to necessitate a verification of understanding in the first/dominant language. This type of learning occurs in many accomplished primary classrooms, although some may operate in a more traditional manner. In the CLIL classroom almost all new content learning involves a form of hands-on modelling, a physical demonstration, and students physically manipulating items and realia to grasp the new concept. In one of our observations we had observed the teacher using a model of the earth in the form of a polystyrene ball with the axis as a stick through the centre. The teacher physically manipulated the ball on the axis to demonstrate how the turning of the earth and its rotation around the sun impacts upon day and night and the seasons, Students then undertook their own physical enactment of the phenomenon constructing their own model. We saw such physical enactments of conceptual learning many times and with different agegroups across the four schools.

Element 2: The pedagogy involves use of multiple semiotic resources

Within all classroom interaction we observed the use of a range of resources at all times. Language, images, gestures, music, and extensive use of the Interactive White Board with self-designed or sourced interactive resources were at almost all times integrated together. The classroom learning therefore relies upon the use of multiple senses to ensure conceptual understanding. Student productive use of language follows after a multi-sensory experience of language and content which is active in terms of conceptual development, but language use is not insisted upon until later in the learning cycle. The multiple semiotic experience is necessary to ensure that understanding of subject content takes place. Without such deep and rich learning environments students might flounder in picking up the required content. This emulates accomplished primary classrooms which ensure a range of approaches to learning. In the CLIL classroom this is embedded throughout every element of each lesson.

Element 3: Concepts of space

The use of space and the movement of students and teachers appears less traditional, and is quite flexible in the CLIL classrooms particularly in terms of "people, place and time". In other words, the students come to the front of class often to take on a student-as-teacher role (Fielding, 2015), they undertake leadership in the learning cycle, and are apprenticed into the role of teacher/user of content and language. This reflects what has been seen in other bilingual modes of education where the use of a studentas-teacher role is seen as empowering the students in their language use and in developing agency in the classroom (Cohen, 2008; Cummins, 2000; Fielding, 2015). It emulates some accomplished primary classrooms but also shows elements specific to bilingual modes of education.

The final two elements, we argue, distinguish the pedagogy as being CLIL through the manner in which they are implemented:

Element 4: The in-flight pedagogy

It is through the in-flight pedagogy that we argue the CLIL classroom differs from nonCLIL primary classrooms. In-flight changes may occur in other accomplished classrooms, however the nature of the range of different changes in the CLIL classroom makes it distinct from other accomplished primary school teaching through the movement between languages as an additional layer. The illustrations of the pedagogical components of the in-flight change shown in the findings section indicate how the switches between content, language and process occur both linguistically and physically. The teachers' use of re-stating and probing questions in the target language facilitates the Community of Practice apprenticeship-style of learning for students in the classroom. It also enables the teacher to develop the dual focus on content and language by reiterating content or language points at any time and clarifying understanding of language or content at all stages of the learning cycle. The teacher use of paralinguistics enables the teacher to focus on content learning without as much need for linguistic focus in the early stages of a new topic. By using gestures, body language and visual support the teacher can enhance understanding of content knowledge without needing additional time to focus on the linguistic aspects. Then through the pedagogical cycle (as depicted in Figure 1, below) the learning of language and new vocabulary associated with the content occurs as a by-product of the learning cycle. The embedding of a focus on reading and writing, and of intercultural elements also ensures efficient use of classroom time. Underpinning the teachers' switches is a pedagogy which empowers the teacher to undertake translanguaging as needed to facilitate the smooth-running of the classroom. Thus individual teachers use English (as the mainstream language) in differing amounts.

Element 5: The pedagogy involves student apprenticeship (Community of Practice)

Student development of linguistic and content knowledge follows a cyclical pattern of apprenticeship. Students gradually build up their use of language and content within a Community of Practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) modelled and facilitated by the teacher. The cycle involves: hearing about the content, seeing the content (image/hands-on resources), manipulating the content (make something, do something), speaking about the content and writing about the content. Therefore there are three receptive activities before the first productive activity in linguistic terms. We depict this in Figure 1, below, as a pedagogical cycle ensuring that engaging with the multiple resources and repetitive use of language result in both content and language learning through an apprenticing into the language and the content. The teacher guides and facilitates student use of language and content through multiple sources of engagement with the topic and linguistic structures. In this way we see a Community of Practice approach to both language and content. This emulates how bilingual development may occur in societal bilingualism (Baker & Wright, 2017; Duff, 2007) within the classroom.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Further exploration of classroom interaction in these contexts is needed to understand the linguistic patterns in more depth. We believe that the linguistic pattern h the pedagogy can be described as unpacking and repacking of semantic density. In other words, technical content language is broken down into common sense everyday language, and then built back up into technical language again, The teachers who see their students achieving well in terms of content and language appear to skilfully rebuild the language and content complexity to a high level. Further exploration of classroom interaction is needed to understand this pattern of interaction in more depth and to further explore the pedagogical model.

CONCLUSIONS

The teachers in these schools have developed a ground-up approach to their context needs. By exploring whattakes place in the classroom and examining this to see common threads across four schools which each developed their own approach, we can see the key elements of CLL practice. The key factors are an apparently seamless set of changes within the teacher interaction which we refer to as in-flight changes. These changes enable the teachers to shift in focus between content, two languages and the processes of learning at a fast pace and to quickly cover both content and linguistic foci. We have indicated how the teachers show five key factors within their pedagogies that show accomplished primary pedagogy but more specifically demonstrate elements specific to a CLIL classroom. These elements are: restating/probing; paralinguistics; connecting language with reading/writing; translanguaging; and embedding of culture.

These elements combine together to construct a pedagogy that empowers the teacher to make in-flight changes in relation to language, content and process in a seamless manner. They can switch between the target language and English and between a focus on content or language learning at any time. In this way the pedagogy reflects elements of accomplished primary teaching and accomplished languages teaching. However it is through the combination of content and language that an accomplished CLIL pedagogy differs from accomplished primary teaching. In the CLIL pedagogical cycle content outcomes are the primary focus, but delivery and teacher guidance of learning ensures simultaneous learning of the new language.

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Ruth Fielding, University of Technology Sydney

Lesley Harbon, University of Technology Sydney

Lesley Harbon is Professor and Head of Schools of International Studies and Education at the University of Technology Sydney. Her collaborative research with Dr Ruth Fielding on CLIL and bilingual education has been ongoing since 2005. Her linguistic landscape and language teacher education research are also continuing. Lesley supervises and examines masters and doctoral research projects. Lesley has presented a number of keynote addresses to professional language education organisations over the pastten years.

Dr Ruth Fielding is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Technology Sydney where she manages the French and Francophone studies program. Ruth is an active researcher with a focus on multilingualism, bilingual education and CLIL, language and identity and language learning and teaching. Ruth has worked at the University of Canberra and the University of Sydney in the area of language teacher education. Prior to an academic career she was a school teacher of French and German. Ruth's book Multilingualism in the Australian Suburbs is available as an e-book and as a hardback book from Springer.

Please Note: Illustration(s) are not available due to copyright restrictions.