摘要：To explain the evolution of complex organisms by random mutation, drift, and selection is not a trivial task.This becomes obvious if we imagine an organism in which most genes affect most traits and all mutations are immediately expressed in the phenotype.Most of the mutations will be deleterious.Computer programmers experienced a similar problem when trying to evolve computer programs by introducing random changes to a conventional computer code, realizing that almost all random changes are “lethal.” Everyone who has done any programming knows that conventional computer languages are very brittle! Real organisms are not organized in this way but rather involve mediation between the genes and the phenotypic traits, namely development, also sometimes called the genotype–phenotype map.This map of genetic effects is structured in a way that enables evolvability, that is, enhances the probability that mutations will improve the performance of the organism.Here we outline two properties of organismal development, namely modularity and robustness.Modularity refers to the situation in which genes affect a restricted number of functionally related phenotypic characters.Robustness describes a situation in which cryptic mutations can accumulate without effect on fitness but can become visible to selection in a new environment or genetic background.We discuss recent empirical evidence in support of both phenomena and their effect on evolvability and also briefly address their evolution.
