摘要：Enhancing the capacity of social‐ecological systems (SES) to adapt to climate change is of crucial importance. While gradual climate change impacts have been the main focus of much recent research, much less is known about how SES are impacted by climate extremes and how they adapt. Here, based on an advanced conceptualization of social‐ecological resilience, performed by an interdisciplinary group of scientists, we outline three major challenges for operationalizing the resilience concept with particular focus on climate extremes. First, we discuss the necessary steps required to identify and measure relevant variables for capturing the full response spectrum of the coupled social and ecological components of SES. Second, we examine how climate extreme impacts on coupling flows in SES can be quantified by learning from past societal transitions or adaptations to climate extremes and resulting changes in ecosystem service supply. Last, we explore how to identify management options for maintaining and enhancing social‐ecological resilience under a changing regime of climate extremes. We conclude that multiple pathways within adaptation and mitigation strategies which enhance the adaptive capacity of SES to absorb climate extremes will open the way toward a sustainable future. Plain Language Abstract Ecosystems and society are closely coupled and are both affected by climate change. Climate extremes are expected to occur more often and/or get more intense under climate change. We ask the following question: How can ecosystems and society, which can be described as so‐called social‐ecological systems, withstand climate extremes and can therefore become more resilient? To achieve this, we use the concept of social‐ecological resilience and identify three challenges that scientists, decision makers, and practitioners need to work on to improve the adaptive capacity of social‐ecological systems to climate extremes. We need to describe and measure the main drivers of climate extremes that impact ecosystems and society and those variables that describe the adaptive capacity and all possible responses of ecosystems and society. Ecosystems and society are coupled: Ecosystems provide ecosystem services to society, and society manages ecosystems. These coupling flows also change under the impact of climate extremes. We still do not fully understand how climate extremes impact these coupling flows or how they can be measured. Because society has influenced ecosystems for many centuries and millennia in many regions of the world, these coupling flows also often have a long history; as such we cannot expect ecosystems and society to adapt to climate extremes separately. We can learn about impacts from past extreme events to continuously improve the management of ecosystems and increase the adaptive capacity of social‐ecological systems. Such management options range from adaptations of land management to institutional practices which are often necessary in order to be useful in helping the affected region immediately after a climate extreme event.
